The Rise and Fall of Ancient Babylon
The situation changes under the sixth king of Babylon - Hammurabi, one of the greatest politicians of antiquity. He ruled Babylon from 1792 to 1750 BC. NS. Having ascended the throne of a small kingdom located in the middle reaches of the Euphrates, Hammurabi ended his days as the ruler of a huge state by the standards of that time, which included the main part of Mesopotamia.
A well-thought-out system of political alliances helped him defeat opponents, and often by the wrong hands. In the conditions of endless internecine wars, Hammurabi more than once entered into and easily dissolved military alliances that were necessary for him to implement his far-reaching plans.
The first years of his reign, Hammurabi was engaged in the construction of temples and, as subsequent events showed, was actively preparing for military operations.
In the seventh year of his reign, with the support of Rimsin, a strong Elamite ruler in Lars, Hammurabi subdued the southern cities of Uruk and Issin. To strengthen his influence on the occupied lands, a far-sighted politician builds a canal in two years, the meaning of which is indicated by his name - "Hammurabi abundance".
The next far-sighted step of Hammurabi is the conclusion of an alliance with the northwestern neighbor - the state of Mari. Both allied states, Babylon and Marie, were now acting in concert. Zimrilim and Hammurabi had an active diplomatic correspondence, from which it is clear that the ruler of Mari gave the king of Babylon freedom of action in Central Mesopotamia.
Thus, having subdued the southern regions and having the strongest ally in the north, Babylon by the 15-16th years of the reign of Hammurabi turns into one of the most influential states in Mesopotamia.
By the 30th year of Hammurabi's reign, it was possible to defeat the kingdom of Eshnunne and its ally, the troops of Elam. A year later, the king of Babylon defeated Rimsin, the ruler of Larsa. Zimrilim, the ruler of Mari, was well aware of the activities of his ally thanks to the existence of an established diplomatic service in the state of Hammurabi. Already during the campaign against Larsa, sensing changes in the policy of Babylon, Zimrilim abandoned joint hostilities and withdrew his troops. Now it was the turn of the kingdom of Mari, to which Hammurabi made two devastating raids. Despite the fact that Hammurabi in the 33rd year of his reign seized the lands of a recent ally, Zimrilim did not surrender. Two years later, Hammurabi undertook another campaign against Mari, even destroying the walls of the capital. The magnificent royal palace, a symbol of the former power of Mari, known far beyond the borders of the kingdom, was also turned into ruins.
So gradually new territories were under the rule of Babylon. Hammurabi also conquered the territory of Assyria with the capital Ashur. It seems that Elamite castles also became the sphere of influence of Babylon, as indicated by reports of prisoners of war from Elam.
For forty years, the talented and successful politician Hammurabi managed to unite under his rule the main part of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys and create a powerful centralized state, the first in the full sense of the word in Western Asia - the Old Babylonian kingdom. Babylon is firmly becoming the new center of Mesopotamia.
Thus, at the turn of the XIX-XVIII centuries BC. NS. as a result of a fierce struggle in Mesopotamia, Babylon began to stand out, eventually turning into one of the greatest cities in the world.
After the unification of the country, Hammurabi had to solve very difficult problems. So that his possessions do not fall apart again into separate regions, the power of the king must be strong. On the other hand, Hammurabi could not take land from the peasants, re-create large tsarist farms, collect artisans in tsarist workshops. Such actions would lead to a rapid decline of the country - people had time to get used to independence, relative freedom, and income from market trade. The wise Hammurabi found techniques that allow the king to control the activities of his subjects.
Hammurabi did not create royal estates, taking land from the peasants. He took advantage of the plots that the communities allotted to him as king. Hammurabi sent his people to these lands - warriors and the so-called "muskenum".
Mushkenum were considered the king's confidants and received from him the land, livestock and grain necessary for farming. Theft of property from the Mushkenum was punished more severely than theft from a simple peasant. So the king could influence the life of rural communities through people loyal to him and dependent on him. The tsar had to deal with peasant debts. Previously, the peasants paid taxes mainly in grain, oil, wool. Hammurabi began to collect taxes in silver. However, not all of the peasants sold food in the markets. Many had to borrow silver from tamkars for an additional fee. Those who were unable to pay off their debts had to give up one of their relatives into slavery. Hammurabi several times canceled the debts accumulated in the country, limited debt slavery to three years, but he did not manage to cope with the problem of debts. No wonder, because among the Tamkars were not only merchants, but also tax collectors and keepers of the royal treasury.
In 1901, French archaeologists discovered during excavations in Susa (now Shush), the capital of ancient Elam, a large stone pillar with the image of King Hammurabi and the text of 247 of his laws, written in cuneiform. It was mainly from these laws that it became known about the life of Babylonia and how Hammurabi ruled the country.
In the introduction to the laws, Hammurabi says: "Marduk directed me to justly lead the people and give the country happiness, then I put truth and justice in the mouth of the country and improved the situation of the people." As a reminder, Marduk was the most revered god of Babylon. Thus, the king is trying to reconcile the interests of different people - tamkars, muskenum, warriors, ordinary members of the community, relying on the will of the supreme deity. Marduk, according to Hammurabi, does not just reward the submissive and punish the disobedient - God gives people a set of rules that establish justice in their relationships with each other. But - through the king! ..
However, Hammurabi never managed to create a strong state. Already during the reign of his son Samsuiluna, Babylonia suffered a series of heavy defeats from her neighbors, and her possessions were reduced. A streak of failures began. In 1595 BC. NS. the Old Babylonian kingdom was destroyed by the invading Hittites and Kassites, who then ruled Mesopotamia for about 400 years.
But Hammurabi still achieved more than his predecessors or the kings of neighboring countries. He was the first of the rulers of antiquity to commensurate the power of the law with the power of the king and recognized the right of his subjects to take care of their own lives. True, some scholars consider the text on the pillar in Susa not as a code of laws, but as a report of the sovereign to the gods.
Since the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon for about 1200 years was the cultural and scientific center of Western Asia. From the 19th to the 6th century BC NS. he was the capital of Babylonia. The exceptional importance of this economic and cultural center is evidenced by the fact that the whole of Mesopotamia was often called Babylonia. Many of the achievements of the ancient Babylonians entered modern life: after the Babylonian priests, they began to divide the year into twelve months, the hour into minutes and seconds, and the circle into three hundred and sixty degrees.
In 689 BC. NS. after a long siege, the Assyrians captured Babylon. By order of Sinacherib, a statue of the chief god of Babylon, Marduk, was taken to Assyria. Many residents were executed, and those who survived were taken prisoner. After that, Sinacherib ordered to flood the city with the waters of the Euphrates.
In 605 BC. NS. The Babylonian army under the command of Nabopalassar's son Nebuchadnezzar attacked the city of Karkemish on the Euphrates, which was defended by an Egyptian garrison of Greek mercenaries.In a fierce battle, all the defenders of the city were killed, and Karkemish himself was turned into a heap of burning ruins. Now the road to the Mediterranean was open, and all of Syria and Palestine submitted to Babylon.
In 604 BC. e, Nabopalasar died, and Nebuchadnezzar II became king of the huge New Babylonian empire.
Immediately after coming to power, Nebuchadnezzar made campaigns against Egypt and the Arabs in North Arabia. In 598 BC. NS. the Jewish king Joachim, who had previously recognized the authority of Babylon, refused to obey Naukhoonosor and entered into an alliance with Pharaoh Necho. Soon the Babylonian army was already under the walls of Jerusalem. Joachim did not receive the promised help from the Egyptians, and on March 16, 597 BC. NS. Nebuchadnezzar entered the city. Joachim, along with 3 thousand noble Jews as hostages, went to Babylon, and Zedekiah became king of Judah. King Zedekiah ruled for exactly 10 years. Like his predecessor, he made an alliance with Egypt, which cost him his kingdom. Pharaoh Aprius captured Gaza, Tire and Sidon. However, the troops of Nebuchadnezzar II drove the Egyptians back and laid siege to Jerusalem. In 587 BC. NS. the city was taken, destroyed, and its inhabitants were taken captive. Then the Babylonians besieged Tire, which was captured only 13 years later, in 574 BC. NS.
The reign of Nebuchadnezzar II was the heyday of the New Babylonian state. Babylon became the largest city in the Ancient East, its population exceeded 200 thousand people.
However, the New Babylonian state created by Nabopalassar and Nebuchadnezzar did not last long. In the 5 years that have passed since the death of Nebuchadnezzar II, three kings were replaced in Babylon. Finally, in 556 BC, the king. NS. became Nabonidus, the leader of one of the Aramaic tribes. Arameans as early as the 8th century BC. NS. came to Mesopotamia and gradually drove the Chaldeans back. King Nabonidus began to oppose the priesthood, which traditionally supported the kings of Babylon, trying to plant in the state the cult of the Aramaic god of the moon. This led to a serious conflict with the priesthood, which recognized the supreme deity of the original Babylonian god Marduk.
King Nabonidus strove to unite all the numerous Aramaic tribes around him. He rather short-sightedly helped young Persia to deal with Media, capturing Harran, which belonged to the Medes. Since by this time the coast of the Persian Gulf was covered with sand, and the edge of the sea receded from the old ports far ahead, which made it impossible for maritime trade in the area. Therefore, Nabonidus captured the Taima oasis in Central Arabia, which allowed him to control the trade routes to Egypt and South Arabia. The king even moved his capital to this region, transferring control of Babylon to his son and heir Belshur-utsur (Belshur-utsur).
The policy of Nabonidus, who neglected the interests of the influential priesthood of the god Marduk, caused strong discontent in Babylon, which is why the Persians, who proclaimed tolerance, freedom and equality of any religion, so easily occupied Babylonia. Belshazzar was killed by his own servants, and Babylon opened the gates to the Persian king Cyrus, who in October 539 BC. NS. triumphantly entered the capital. In accordance with his custom, Cyrus saved the lives of Nabonidus and his family, providing them with the honors corresponding to their former high position. However, Babylonia became a province (satrapy) of the Persian state and lost its independence forever.
The significance of Babylon in world history is evidenced by many references in the books of the prophets: the book of the prophet Isaiah, the book of the prophet Jeremiah, one of the most mysterious books of the Bible, the book of the prophet Daniel, which has attracted the attention of people for 2500 years Ominous apocalyptic beasts, the fiery furnace , a lion's moat, mathematical calculations are combined in it with a description of the faith of fearless Jewish youths, internal contradictions and spiritual torments of the ancient ruler, a palace feast on the eve of the death of the kingdom. Some see in this book an interesting literary work of the East, others - an irrepressible strange fantasy of an ancient author, others - a Divine revelation, lifting the curtain of human history for 2500 years, with a description of the ups and downs of future states and peoples.
Bibliography
For the preparation of this work were used materials from the site http://www.ancientvavilon.narod.ru
The upper part of the pillar with the text of the laws of the Babylonian king Hammurabi. Found in Susa. XVIII century BC. Basalt
Babylon was located in the northern part, on the Euphrates River. The name of the city "Babili" (Babylon) means "Gate of God".
Babylon, as an independent state, relatively late entered the arena of history, therefore, not a single Babylonian dynasty is mentioned in the list of royal dynasties compiled by the scribes of the Isin dynasty.
Late Babylonian priestly legend mentions Babylon, telling that the gods punished Sargon, king of Akkad, for the evil done to Babylon.
A legend has also survived about the punishment incurred by the largest representative of the III dynasty of Ur Shulgi for robbing the temple of Marduk, the god of Babylon.
Already during the III dynasty of Ur, Babylon apparently began to play a significant role: in documents it is mentioned along with such cities as Umma, Kish, Sippar.
Around 1895 BC NS. The newly invaded Amorite tribes managed to capture the northern part of the kingdom of Isin and create an independent state here, the capital of which was the city of Babylon.
The new state did not play a big role for about a century. But by the beginning of the 18th century. BC NS.
Isin, weakened by the fall of Babylon, lost its former importance, and Larsa was conquered shortly before that (in 1834 BC).
In the north, a period of temporary strengthening began, which made some areas of Akkad dependent on itself, in particular the areas of the cities of Mari and Eshnunna.
These circumstances were used by the Babylonian king Hammurabi (1792-1750). To free his hands in the struggle for supremacy in, Hammurabi, it seems, temporarily admitted his ‘dependence on King Shamshiadad I.
Already in the 7th year of his reign, Hammurabi conquered Uruk and Isin, using the help of Rimsin, a representative of the Elamite dynasty in Lars, with whose kings friendly relations were maintained at that time.
Having built in the 9th year a canal of great economic importance, called "Hammurabi-Abundance", he tried to reconcile the population of the conquered regions with his power.
Having achieved the first significant successes, Hammurabi began to fear interference from the king of Shampshadad I and his allies - the steppe tribes. He began to take measures to strengthen his northern borders and began the conquest of the border areas.
After Shampshadad's death, Hammurabi assisted in the expulsion of his son from Mari. With the help of Hammurabi, a representative of the old royal house of Mari, Zimrilim, again sat on the throne of his fathers.
A new heyday of the state of Mari began, which successfully repelled the raids of the steppe tribes and the invasions of the troops of the kingdom of Eshnunna. Mari's trade ties reached faraway Crete.
Hammurabi, who helped Zimrilim conquer the throne, became his ally.
They called each other "brothers". Zimrilim had permanent representatives at the court of the Babylonian king, but the latter often wrote in letters directly to both Zimrilim himself and his dignitaries. In their foreign policy, both couples usually acted in concert.
The position of Hammurabi, who conquered Isin in the south and Uruk, who relied on an alliance with Mari in the north, was extremely advantageous. Even then (about 15-16 years of his reign) he was one of the most powerful rulers.
But soon the relationship between the ruler of Larsa Rimsin and Hammurabi aggravated, and this temporarily put the Babylonian king in a difficult position.
As a result of the falling away of the southern regions and the rejection of the northern border strip for Hammurabi, a difficult political situation was created. Having accumulated strength for a decisive blow, in the 30th year of his reign, he began a victorious attack on his enemies.
Hammurabi defeated his northern enemies led by Eshpunna and defeated the army that was trying to come to their aid. In the next, 31st year of his reign (1762 BC), he attacked his main enemy - Rimsin, capturing his capital Larsa; it is possible that Rimsin fled to Elam at the same time.
The strengthening of the power of the Babylonian soar caused great concern for the fate of his own kingdom from his ally Zimrilim, and during the war he avoided helping Hammurabi. After defeating Eshnunna, Hammurabi invaded the kingdom of Zimrilim.
In the 33rd year of his reign, he subdued the kingdom of Mari and the regions allied with it.
Zimrilim did not want to come to terms with the subordinate position, but then an even more cruel punishment befell him. In the 35th year of his reign, Hammurabi defeated Mari, destroyed the magnificent palace of Zimrilim and the walls of the city.
In subsequent years, the Babylonian king subdued the area along the Tigris, including Ashur.
Having united the main and most important part of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys, Hammurabi became the master of trade routes to the east, north and fuse. He subjugated significant areas in the east to his influence. Elamite prisoners of war are repeatedly mentioned in documents of that time.
All areas of Asia Minor and Syria that were in trade relations with the kingdom of Mari were now included in the orbit of Babylonian trade.
During this period, the influence of Babylonian culture on the Syrian cities, on the Hittite tribal union, on the Phoenician state of Ugarit increased.
In the west, the impact of Babylonian culture from this period is felt in Palestine.
It is possible that Babylonia under Hammurabi or under his closest successors entered into relations with an even more distant country - with Egypt.
a term that in historical science, following the ancient tradition, is called the territory of Yuzh. Mesopotamia in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the south of the present. Iraq, and the state that arose here in the beginning. II millennium BC and existed, despite separate periods of decline, before its conquest by the Persians in the VI century. BC The most important political, cultural and economic center of the state was Babylon, which gave its name to the territory and country. Until the cuneiform script was deciphered (mid-19th century), the only sources for the study of V. were the rare mentions of this name in Sacred. The writings and works of ancient authors, especially Herodotus. During archaeological excavations carried out from the 2nd floor. XIX century, in addition to the monuments of material culture, a huge number of written documents were discovered, the deciphering of which made it possible not only to restore the history of the region, but also to get an idea of the language, literature, religion and everyday life of the population of V.
Babylonian culture, which had a noticeable impact on the political and spiritual development of all peoples of the Near. East, arose as a result of centuries-old interaction of a number of ethnic groups that at different times lived in the territory of Mesopotamia: the Sumerians, Akkadians, Amorites, Kassites, Arameans, etc. The basis of this civilization was laid by the Sumerians who inhabited the South. Mesopotamia in the 4th millennium BC It was the Sumerians who were the creators of the world's oldest writing system, which developed into cuneiform writing. From the beginning. III millennium BC sowing. the neighbors of the Sumerians were the Akkadians, whose language belonged to the Semites. group. They borrowed and developed many. cultural and technical achievements of the Sumerians. In the 2nd millennium BC, the Akkadians were divided into 2 people closely related in language and culture: the Babylonians and the Assyrians.
For the first time, all of Mesopotamia was united by the "king of Sumer and Akkad" Sargon in the XXIV century. BC (see Art. Akkad). Akkad. the state existed for less than 200 years. The city of Babylon (Sumerian. Ka-dingirra) at this time is already mentioned in economic documents as a small provincial center, in which the king's governor sat. In the very end. III millennium B.C. territory bud. V. was united under the rule of the 3rd dynasty of the Sumerians. Hooray.
Old Babylonian period (2017-1595 BC)
In the beginning. II millennium BC a large group of West Semites invaded Mesopotamia from the Syro-Arabian steppes. semi-nomadic tribes, to-rye received here the general name of the Amorites, that is, West. For about a century and a half, the leaders of a number of Amorite tribes seized power in many. cities of Mesopotamia, having founded their own dynasties in them. It was from this time that the political history of Hungary begins, initially as a small city-state of Babylon, where one of the Amorite dynasties reigned (the so-called 1st dynasty of Babylon, 1894-1595 BC). The 6th ruler of the Hammurabi dynasty united the South. and part of the North. Mesopotamia into a single state, after. called V.
King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC) and his successors on the throne bore Amorite names. Hammurabi's name is Akkad. the transfer of the Amorite name Ammu-rapi, literally meaning God the ancestor - the healer. Hammurabi was not only a successful conqueror and creator of a single state, but also a good administrator who delved into all the issues of managing the annexed territories, as well as a reformer and legislator. In the legislative code, drawn up on his behalf ("Laws of Hammurabi"), both local Mesopotamian traditions and certain innovations were combined. If the basis of the system of punishments is tradition. Mesopotamian legislation was primarily material compensation for damage, even in the case of physical harm, then in the "Laws of Hammurabi" very often crimes are punishable by the death penalty or punishment is prescribed on the principle of equal retribution. The same principle is mentioned in the OT (Lev 24.20; Ex 21.23-24). There is speculation that this is a legacy of Amorrean jurisprudence.
The social and economic structure of Hungary, which was established under Hammurabi, remained unchanged under his successors. After the death of Hammurabi, his son Samsuiluna (1749-1712 BC) ascended the throne, whose main task was to preserve the conquests of his father. However, a number of factors: the Sumerian revolt. cities in the south of Hungary, the separatism of local city rulers, and the political weakness of the heirs of Hammurabi - led to the fact that Britain gradually weakened, and its territory decreased. The end of the dynasty is associated with the capture of Babylon by the army of the Hittite king Mursilis in 1595 BC The Hittites, having plundered the city, were forced to leave. The fruits of this victory were used by the Kassites, who seized the city and founded a new dynasty here, which ruled in Hungary for more than 400 years (1595-1150 BC).
V. in the 1st floor. II millennium BC retained in economic life, and especially culture and religion, many. trad. features Sumer. way of life. The most important social and political structure of the state was small towns, which were the cult centers of the surrounding territories. The economy was based on agriculture and cattle breeding, handicraft production and trade played an important role in the life of the country. In social terms, the population of Hungary was divided into 3 main groups: full-fledged free (avilums), i.e., persons who owned land plots and real estate by inheritance, free with limited rights (muskenums), among them were people who did not have hereditary rights to land and received land allotments from a palace or temple for service, and slaves (vardums). The number of slaves was relatively small.
Art and literature flourished in the cities of Hungary, and knowledge in the field of medicine, mathematics, and astronomy developed. This was facilitated by the preservation and development of the education system. There were schools at the temples, where bud. scribes were taught to read and write in Sumerian. and akkad. languages, the basics of mathematics, and other necessary knowledge. Scribes copied and translated into Akkad. the language of Sumerian. religion and other texts, created new works in Akkad. language, so pl. researchers consider this period to be the time of the "classical Babylonian language".
Middle Babylonian period (1595-1000 BC)
can be conditionally divided into the reign of the Kassite dynasty (1595-1150 BC) and the 2nd dynasty of Issin (1150-1027 BC). The Kassites, in contrast to other ethnic groups that migrated to Mesopotamia, such as the Amorites or Arameans, largely remain a mystery to researchers. Almost nothing has survived from the Kassite language, with the exception of certain names and terms, and to establish its belonging to the k.-l. the famous language family has not yet succeeded. Presumably the Kassites came to the borders of Mesopotamia from the steppes of Wed. Asia, passing either through the Caucasus Mountains, or along the Iranian plateau. Since the 18th century. BC they are mentioned in Babylonian sources, either as warriors raiding small towns and villages in Britain, or as peaceful migrants, hired workers, or merchants.
Once on the throne in Babylon, the Kassite leaders fell under the influence of the ancient urban culture of Mesopotamia. They adopted the language and writing of the Babylonians, worshiped local gods, and fully adopted the local traditions of behavior in private and official. life, giving preference to especially conservative forms. The Kassite kings paid great attention to the restoration of ancient temples in Hungary and the construction of new ones. One of the building structures of that time - a multi-stage pyramid (ziggurat), which was part of the temple complex in the city of Dur-Kurigalzu, not far from the modern. Baghdad, the only monument of Mesopotamian monumental architecture, relatively well preserved to the present. time (current height approx. 60 m). Europeans who visited here on Wed. centuries and in modern times, the remains of this structure were taken for the ruins of the Tower of Babel.
The rule of the Kassite dynasty is the longest period of relatively stable existence of the state. This time was characterized by the absence of serious internal conflicts and the gradual smoothing out of economic contradictions between the regions of V. In connection with the salinization of old irrigated lands, the state undertook a radical restructuring of the irrigation and reclamation system, vast new agricultural territories were developed, the population of which now bore the main burden state taxes and duties. In a more privileged position were residents of a number of large cities, including Babylon, to which the rights of self-government were granted, as well as those persons from among the royal relatives or high-ranking officials, to which the Kassite kings transferred into the possession of huge land plots with agricultural lands, villages and even small towns. Special decrees that exempted these lands from the state. taxes and duties, carved on stone steles (kudurru), some of which survived to the present. time.
In the XIV century. B.C. foreign policy ties expanded significantly. Letters of the Kassite kings of Egypt. pharaohs found in V. Egypt in places. Tell el-Amarna, written in Babylonian cuneiform in the Babylonian language, to-ry in the XIV century. BC played the role of the language of international communication throughout the Middle. East (see Amarna Letters). They contain information on the exchange of diplomatic envoys and gifts, on dynastic marriages, on the resolution of trade disputes. Babylonian king and egypt. Pharaohs called each other brothers, which indicates the equality of their statuses.
In the end. XIV century. BC with the strengthening of Assyria, sowing. neighbor V., rivalry between the states has increased. Peace treaties on the division of borders periodically gave way to military conflicts, during one of them the Assyrian. King Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244-1208 BC) invaded Hungary with his army, captured Babylon and ordered the execution of the Babylonian king. For some time V. was under the rule of Assyria, but the death of the conqueror for a time freed the Babylonians from this dependence. The final blow to the Kassite V. was delivered by the Elamites; neighbors and longtime rivals. In 1155 BC, the Elamite army made a devastating raid on the east. Many villages and cities were destroyed, many others. the Babylonians were killed or taken prisoner, among the prisoners was the last king of the Kassite dynasty. A statue of the god Marduk was also taken from V. to Elam. After a certain period of chaos, Hungary regained its statehood under the rule of the 2nd dynasty of Isshin (3rd Babylonian dynasty). The kings of this dynasty began the unification of Hungary from the ancient city of Issin, and later moved to Babylon. The most prominent representative of this dynasty was Nebuchadnezzar (Nabu-kudurri-utsur) I (1126-1105 BC), a successful commander and patron of the arts and sciences. He took revenge on the Elamites, inflicting a crushing defeat on them, and returned the statue of the god Marduk to the main temple of Babylon - Esagil. The entire population of the country took part in the solemn ceremony, special hymns and poems were created, and from that time on, Marduk finally took the position of the main god of the Babylonian pantheon. During the reign of the last kings of the 2nd dynasty, Issina V. entered a "dark period" in its history, caused by the invasion of its territory by foreign peoples.
During the reign of the Kassite dynasty and the 2nd dynasty of Isshin, in connection with the restructuring of the irrigation system, many people finally fell into decay. ancient cities, at the same time lost their role and the cults of a number of city gods that existed in them. At the same time, the sun god Shamash, who was regarded not only as a light deity, but also as a righteous judge, acquired exceptional popularity among the entire population of Hungary at this time; one could turn to him with entreaties and requests for justice. The role of magic has noticeably increased.
The Babylonian school of e-dubba (house of tablets) played a leading role at this time in the education system and the preservation of the ancient traditions of writing. Here, as well as in the scribal schools of other cities of Hungary (primarily Nippur and Ur), work was actively carried out on copying and writing. processing of the ancient Sumerians. texts. A new version of "Shuruppak's Manual" was created, "The Descent of Ishtar into the Underworld"; Sumer. and akkad. the epic songs about Gilgamesh were combined into a single epic, edited by the scribe Sin-Liki-Unnini; a new cult epic about the creation of the world was written - "Enuma elish", which consolidated the idea of the main god of Babylon, Marduk, as originally the main deity of all Mesopotamia. The individual literature also developed actively. creation. A number of works were created that reflected the inner spiritual experiences of a person, for example. the poem "The Innocent Sufferer", built as an expanded penitential psalm, the author of which tries to comprehend the cause of the suffering sent to him. The poem has parallels with the Book of Job.
Britain's cultural influence during that period spread far to the west, right up to Greece. The Babylonian language was the language of international communication and high education throughout the Middle. East. Babylonian lit. and religion. essays were studied and copied in schools in Egypt, Syria, and Asia.
B. during the period of decline and partial subordination of Assyria (1000-627 BC)
In the end. II - early. I millennium BC HV and Assyria experienced a period of decline and chaos caused by the invasion of their territory by huge masses of Arameans, West Semites. cattle-breeding tribes, to-rye, as the Amorites once, spread across the Near. East. The Arameans ravaged the rural population, destroyed small towns and occupied territories between major cities, cutting them off from trade routes and supplies. The situation was especially difficult in V., on which, in addition to the Arameans, who were moving from the west and north-west, the Chaldean tribes related to them attacked from the south. Only in the IX century. BC, after several. centuries of chaos and decline, Britain and Assyria began to gradually restore their statehood, while the fates of these kindred peoples turned out to be especially closely linked.
All R. VIII century BC Chaldean tribes fortified in the south of Hungary attempted to seize the Babylonian throne. Fearing such a development of events, Assyr. King Tiglathpalasar III (744-727 BC) brought his troops into Hungary and was crowned in Babylon, proclaiming himself its king. Thus, Assyria and Hungary formed a single state under the rule of the Assyrian. king, which existed until 627 BC.
The population of Hungary at that time consisted of a number of ethnic groups, to-rye, each pursuing its own political goals and interests, often came into conflict with each other. The most significant were 4 groups: the Babylonians proper, Arameans, Elamites and Chaldeans. Some of them welcomed the unification of Assyria and Hungary, others were against it. Small in number, but very influential was also a group of Assyrians, consisting of military and officials who came here from the Assyrian. kings. V. during that period was a constant source of internecine conflicts and internal instability, which forced Assyria to periodically send troops there to restore order.
The most active and influential fighter for independence was the leader of the Chaldean tribe Bit-Yakin Marduk-apla-iddin, mentioned in the Bible under the name Merodach Valadan (Is 39.1). In 721 BC, taking advantage of the fact that the new Assyrian. King Sargon II was busy settling the internal problems of the state, Marduk-apla-iddin was crowned in Babylon and ruled here approx. 10 years. In 710 BC, the army of Sargon II inflicted a crushing defeat on the Chaldeans, and Marduk-apla-iddin fled to south V., where he found refuge in the territory of his tribe. After the death of Sargon in 704 BC, Marduk-apla-iddin again seized power in Hungary and tried to conclude an alliance against Assyria with the king of Judah Hezekiah (2 Kings 20. 12-21). However, not even a year had passed when the son and successor of Sargon, Sinacherib, expelled Marduk-apla-iddin from Babylon. Antiassir grew up in V. mood, Sinacherib took a number of measures aimed at maintaining order, but they did not bring any result. In the end, he proclaimed his son king of V., but Elam joined the political game: while the army of Sinacherib was fighting in the south of V., the Elamites bypassed the Assyrian. army from the north and, having occupied Babylon, captured and executed the son and heir of Sinacherib. The angry king of Assyria took cruel revenge on both the Babylonians and the Elamites. Assyrian first. the army devastated Elam, and then moved to the east. In 689 BC, Babylon was captured by the Assyrians, plundered and completely destroyed. The few surviving residents fled. The statue of the god Marduk was sent to Assyria. The successor of Sinacherib, Esarhaddon (680-669 BC), considered reconciliation with Britain as one of the most important tasks of his reign. This policy ensured him peace in the south. borders of Assyria. Part of the enormous material resources that Assyria's conquests brought were directed towards the restoration of Babylon and the construction of the Esagilu temple complex, although the statue of the god Marduk was returned to Babylon after the death of Esarhaddon. In his will, Esarhaddon ordered to divide the government of the country between his 2 sons after his death. To the elder, Ashurbanipal, he left Assyria, and to the younger, Shamashshumukin, V., which soon led to a war between the brothers.
Shamashshumukin enjoyed the support of a part of the Babylonians, he also concluded agreements on military assistance with Elam, Chaldean tribes and some sheikhs of Arabia. In 648 BC, after a long siege, the army of Ashurbanipal captured Babylon. Shamashshumukin died, and Ashurbanipal began to rule V. through the puppet king, who was placed on the throne by him.
New Babylonian Period (625-539 BC)
In Assyria, after the death of Ashurbanipal, turmoil ensued, and the Babylonians, taking advantage of this, once again tried to expel the Assyrians from their country. A certain Chaldean named Nabopalassar stood at the head of the uprising. In 626 BC, Babylonian troops under his command laid siege to Nippur, where the Assyrian was stationed. military garrisons. The siege dragged on for a long time, the population of the city suffered from hunger, and some residents, as documents of that time testify, were forced to sell their children into slavery in order to save them from starvation. For some reason, the Babylonians lifted the siege and began to retreat towards Babylon, Assyr. the army pursued them. The last battle took place at the walls of Babylon, Assyr. the army was completely defeated. Inspired by their victory, the Babylonians proclaimed Nabopalassar king, who became the founder of a new dynasty. In subsequent years Britain successfully expanded its borders further and further to the north, crowding out Assyria. Egypt, before that had always been at enmity with Assyria, tried to come to her aid. The Babylonians found allies in the person of the Medes, who lived in the West. Iran, and in alliance with them continued to press Assyria. In 614 BC the allied troops took the city of Ashur, in 612 they captured Nineveh. Remains of the Assyrian troops took refuge in the city of Harran, from where they were driven out in 610. The last decisive battle between the two coalitions took place in 605 BC near the city of Karchemish. Egypt alone opposed V. Babylonian army, which was headed by the son of Nabopalassar bud. Nebuchadnezzar II, won a complete victory. Assyria disappeared from the world arena, its territory was divided among themselves by the Babylonians and the Medes, Egypt was defeated, and its authority in Near. The east has been undermined. Nabopalassar died shortly after the Battle of Carchemish, and Nebuchadnezzar II, who returned to Babylon, ascended the throne.
The reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC) was the time of Britain's rise in the international arena. As a result of a series of successful military campaigns in Syria-Palestine, Britain conquered a vast territory, which was once under the rule of the Assyrian. powers. Now on the Middle. In the East there were only 3 powerful states: Media, V. and Egypt. Having won a series of victories over the rulers of small states in Vost. Mediterranean, Nebuchadnezzar considered his army prepared enough to face off against Egypt. However, the battle of 601 BC did not reveal a decisive advantage for any of the armies, and the Babylonians had to return home for the first time without gaining a victory. Meanwhile, the political situation in Vost. The Mediterranean has changed dramatically. The humiliating peace with Egypt pushed certain local rulers to revolt.
One of the states that decided to fall away from V. was Judea. King Joachim of Judea, son of Josiah, and his entourage, who occupied the proegip. position, refused to pay tribute to V., not listening to the warnings of the prop. Jeremiah and his followers (Jer 46-51). The Babylonian king could not ignore the rebellion in the strategically important state of Vost. Mediterranean, and in 597 BC the Babylonian army entered Jerusalem, the capital of Judea. Shortly before this, Joachim died and the throne passed to his son Jeconiah. By order of Nebuchadnezzar, the king and his entire court, as well as noble families opposed to Babylon, only approx. 3 thousand people were driven into Hungary (4 Kings 24.14-15). Egypt, as Jeremiah had predicted, did not provide any support to its allies.
Nebuchadnezzar II appointed his relative Zedekiah to be Jeconiah's successor. Despite the new warnings prop. Jeremiah, Zedekiah, relying on support from Egypt, decided to leave Babylon again and refused to pay tribute to him. In 587 BC, the Babylonian army entered Judea, heading for Jerusalem. On the way, the Babylonians captured several. cities, but did not destroy them and treated the civilians mercifully, hoping that, having learned about this, the inhabitants of Jerusalem would not offer them resistance. When the army of Nebuchadnezzar II laid siege to Jerusalem, prop. Jeremiah and his supporters, knowing how mercifully the Babylonians dealt with the captured cities of Judea, persistently urged the population to surrender. At the same time, egypt. the army moved into Judea and tried, albeit unsuccessfully, to break the siege of Jerusalem. The Babylonians succeeded in pushing back Egypt. the army back to the former border and after a two-year siege capture the rebellious city. Nebuchadnezzar II liquidated the Kingdom of Judea, annexing it to the Babylonian state as a province. Thousands of the inhabitants of Jerusalem were taken into captivity and settled in different cities of Hungary, including in Babylon itself.
According to Babylonian tradition, Nebuchadnezzar II was not only a conqueror, but also a builder and patron of culture. His reign was a time of economic prosperity and cultural upsurge. Britain's military successes ensured her political stability and contributed to the flow of material wealth, which made it possible to carry out an ambitious program for the reconstruction of Babylon, which became the largest city in the Middle East during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II. East with a population of approx. 200 thousand people All in. part of it, on the banks of the Euphrates, a new royal palace was built. The city walls were rebuilt and a stone bridge was built across the Euphrates, which connected the 2 parts of the city. The main temple complex of Esagilu was completely restored, including the seven-step cult pyramid (ziggurat). The legend of the "Hanging Gardens of Babylon" as one of the 7 wonders of the world is possibly connected with this tower. On the upper platform of the ziggurat, a garden was planted, to-ry people, approaching the city, could see from afar towering high above the city walls. Nebuchadnezzar's successors did not represent any significant state. leaders, and although the state continued to flourish for a short time, the peak of its rise was passed.
The last ruler of independent Hungary was Nabonidus (556-539 BC), the most mysterious figure in New Babylonian history. Despite the political instability, he found time to hold religions. reforms, was engaged in active construction activities and even spent 10 years in the Arabian desert. Having ascended the throne, Nabonidus actively contributed to the spread of the cult of the moon, supported the cult of the moon god Sina in the ancient city of Ur. At the same time, the cult of Marduk was in the background, which caused sharp opposition from the priesthood, even several were created. writings that accused Nabonidus of blasphemy.
During the ten-year stay of Nabonidus in places. Teima, one of the oases of the Arabian desert, whose inhabitants also worshiped the moon god, affairs in Babylon were ruled by his son Bel-shar-utsur (biblical Belshazzar - Dan 5). While Nabonidus was in Arabia, the Persians were building up their military forces near the eastern borders. In 539 BC, the army of Cyrus II the Great crossed the eastern borders along the banks of the river. Diyaly. Nabonidus, returning from Teima, met the Persians at the head of his army near the town of Opis. The Babylonians were defeated in battle. The Persians moved to Babylon, the inhabitants of which, according to some local sources, themselves opened the gates of Cyrus's army and greeted the Persian king as a liberator from the tyrant Nabonidus. However, Herodotus writes that the city was taken by force. In any case, in 539 BC Babylon was captured by the Persians, and this put an end to the existence of Britain as an independent state. Rebellions against the domination of the Persians, for example. in 522-521, in 484. After the uprising of 482, the Babylonian kingdom was abolished and reduced to the status of an ordinary satrapy of the empire.
Cyrus contributed to the preservation of the local culture and avoided interfering in Hungary's internal affairs as long as its population remained loyal to the Persians. He adhered to the same policy in relation to other conquered territories, including Palestine. In the Bible, Cyrus appears as a liberator, who restored justice and reasonable government (Is 45. 1-13). After the death of Cambyses (530-522 BC), Cyrus' successor, a rebellion broke out in Persia. The Babylonians, taking advantage of the turmoil, chose a local king for themselves. Darius I brutally suppressed the uprising both in Persia itself and in the conquered territories, including in Britain, imposing a particularly heavy tribute on it. The last attempt to throw off the Persians. reign was undertaken under Xerxes I (485-465 BC): the rebels placed their king on the throne in Babylon and refused to pay tribute to the Persians. Persis. the army quickly suppressed the rebellion and destroyed Babylon, the cult center of Esagil was razed to the ground, and the statue of Marduk was taken to Persia.
The new rise of Babylon took place under Alexander the Great, who defeated the Persians and made Babylon the capital of his empire. The unexpected death of Alexander in Babylon, where he returned after the Indus. campaign, prevented the implementation of his plans. After a long struggle for the division of the empire, the territory of Hungary came under the rule of the Seleucid dynasty. Seleucus I (312-281 BC) built a new capital near Babylon, the city of Seleucia on the Tigris, where a significant part of the population of Babylon was resettled.
In the II century. BC The Seleucids were driven out of Britain by the Parthian dynasty of the Arshakids. In 115 A.D. Babylon was conquered by Rome. imp. Trayan, and in 199 - imp. Septimus by the North. By that time, trade routes ran far from Babylon and it no longer played any role either economically or politically. The city became depopulated, fell into complete decay and after a while was abandoned, so that in the next. even the place where Babylon was once was forgotten. Despite the loss of statehood, the Babylonian civilization existed for several more. centuries. Akkad. cuneiform up to the 1st century. AD was used in temples to record religions. and adm. texts.
Lit .: Parker R. A., Dubberstein W. H. Babylonian Chronology 626 B. C.-A. D. 75. Providence, 1956; Lambert W. G. Babylonian Wisdom Literature. Oxf. 1960. Winona Lake (Ind.) 1966; Hallo W. W., Simpson W. K. The Ancient Near East: A History. N. Y. 1971, 19982; Oates J. Babylon. L., 1979; Klengel-Brandt E. Journey to Ancient Babylon: Per. with him. M., 1979; Oppenheim, A. L. Ancient Mesopotamia: A Portrait of a Perished Civilization: Per. from English M., 1980, 19902; Klochkov I. WITH . Spiritual culture of Babylonia: man, destiny, time. M., 1983; Dandamaev M. A . Babylonian scribes. M., 1983; History of the Ancient East: the birth of the most ancient class societies and the first centers of slave-owning civilization: Mesopotamia / Ed. I. M. Dyakonov. M., 1983. Part 1; Brinkman J. A. Prelude to Empire: Babbylonian Society and Politics, 747-626 B. C. Phil., 1984; George A. R. Babylonian Topographical Texts. Leuven 1992; Jacobsen T. Treasures of Darkness: A History of the Mesopotamian Religion: Per. from English M., 1995; Postgate J. N. Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History. L., 1992,1994.
N. V. Kozyreva
Babylon
(Sumer. Kadingirra; Akkad. Bab-ilim - the gates of God) - the largest city in the Middle. East, located on the river. Euphrates and its two major canals. The ruins of ancient V. are located 80 km south of the present day. Baghdad (Iraq), on the banks of the river. Euphrates. The settlement unites several. hills, among which the north. Tell Babil (height 22 m), retained the name of ancient Babylon, and tell Qasr (fortress; approx. 2´ 1.2 km) contains the ruins of the city. Since the XII century. the settlement was visited by many. travelers looking for traces of the Tower of Babel. In the XIX century. archaeologists O. G. Layard (1850), F. Frenzel (1852), H. Rassam (1879-1882) and others carried out research work here; as a result, the first collections of tiles and bricks with inscriptions were collected. In the very end. XIX century. Babylon began to be systematically investigated by the German Eastern Society (1899-1917). The goals of these works, which were directed by R. Koldevey and V. Andre, were the restoration of the city plan, the study of Babylonian architecture and the discovery of the monument, which became, in his opinion. researchers, the prototype of the Tower of Babel. As a result of the research, sowing was opened. and south. palaces and temple of the goddess Ninmah; the path of processions from the gate of Ishtar to the temple of Marduk, the ziggurat, the temple of Ninurta, the theater of the Hellenistic period were studied; surveys of walls, residential quarters and the Ishtar Temple began. At the same time, only the layers belonging to the period of the reign of the New Babylonian dynasty (625-539 BC) were systematically studied; almost no materials from the Old Babylonian era were found (the level of groundwater did not allow studying the lower layers).
The work received a new stimulus only in the last. Thursday XX century, which was associated with the desire of the government of Saddam Hussein to restore the ruins of V. As a result of the work carried out by the German Archaeological Institute and the Main Directorate of Antiquities of Baghdad, the procession road, the temples of Ninmah and Naboo were restored, the structure of the city, the main types of buildings and features of architecture.
In the present. At the time, the city plan cannot be restored in its entirety, but its borders are clearly marked by elevations along the lines of the walls. The outer wall is a huge triangle, one of the sides adjacent to the east. bank of the Euphrates, the remains of 2 other walls converge in the east. corner (north-east side - 4 km, south - 3 km). The total length of the outer wall is just over 8 km. Inside the triangle, close to its south. wall, the center of the city was located, also surrounded by a wall, in the plan close to a rhombus, one of the sides of which was formed by a river. Opposite this main, "eastern" city in the west. On the coast there was a smaller “western” city, rectangular in plan, also surrounded by a wall (the perimeter of the walls of both central parts is approx. 8, 15 km). Based on the epigraphic data, the construction of both walls dates back to the New Babylonian era. All the walls were lined with wide canal ditches. The inner wall consisted of 2 brick contours with a road between them. The ditch around her was approx. 50 m wide, connected with the Euphrates at both ends. The outer wall was three-layered: above the moat with an escarpment lined with burnt bricks, there were 2 wall shells, the space between which was filled with construction waste. There was a wide covered passage on the wall.
The city was well planned. Zap. and east. the halves were connected by a stone-paved bridge on 7 brick supports (123 m long and 5-6 m wide). Residential quarters were built up with manor houses with large courtyards and crenellated outer walls.
The most important buildings faced east. the coast, in the more ancient part (only here the layers of the Old Babylonian and Kassite eras are discovered). This part was divided by the main streets into large areas, which, judging by the areas studied, were occupied by public buildings, temples and residences of the nobility. The main streets ran along the river, crossing transverse ones at right angles to the huge city gates. T. n. the procession road ran from the temple of Marduk and the ziggurat, along the east. walls south. the palace to the massive Ishtar gate, and through them - to a special "sanctuary of festivities" (north of the city wall, it is known from the texts, but not identified during excavations). The processional road separated the river region, which occupied approx. quarter east cities. Between the road and the Euphrates were located south. palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, ziggurat and temples of Marduk, Nabu, Galu, Ninurta. Along the west. the coast, opposite the main religions. buildings in the city center, residential quarters stretched. Nothing is known about the gates of the outer wall, but in the inner wall and on the right bank, according to the description on the cuneiform tablets, there were 9 of them.
Only the Ishtar Gate has been completely excavated - an arched entrance flanked by 2 towers (height 15 m), reinforced with bastions. They were decorated with images of bulls and dragons - the symbols of Adad and Marduk. The gates were rebuilt three times during the era of Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC), each time using a different decor technique. Initially, the friezes were made in relief in simple brick (this part is completely hidden under the ground); then irrigated, but without relief. The last to be created were the famous friezes of relief glazed bricks, depicting a procession of alternating bulls and dragons (c. 150). These gates were taken out and installed in the Berlin Museum. The high walls of the processional road (length 250 m, width 20-24 m), which continued from the gate to the north, were decorated in the lower part with symbols of the goddess Ishtar, images of lions, and rosettes.
On the section of the Ishtar gate, to the west of the processional road, on both sides of the city wall, there were 2 palaces of Nebuchadnezzar II - south. and sowing. Main south the palace was separated from the river by a citadel with powerful walls (built, according to the inscription, during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar). Trapezoidal in plan, it consisted of 5 courtyards. To the south. on the side of the main courtyard was a reception complex with a throne room. Around other courtyards there were royal apartments, harem, adm. and military buildings. Many inscriptions have survived in the palace: the inscriptions of the names of palaces and temples were preserved on the brick of the Nebuchadnezzar era, and special clay tablets were inserted into the masonry with instructions to subsequent rulers to update the buildings.
From the south. the history of the opening of the hanging gardens is connected with the palace, to-rye rested on high stone ledges holding the soil with exotic plants. When in its northeast. corner was cleared of 14 vaulted underground rooms with unusually thick walls and a shaft, it. scientists decided that this structure was for the mechanical lifting of water to a great height, and announced that they had found the foundation of the famous gardens, named by Herodotus among the 7 wonders of the world. Early Greek. tradition attributed their construction to Queen Semiramis, and the Hellenistic historian Berossus to Nebuchadnezzar II, who allegedly built them for one of his wives as a reminder of her native places in the mountainous Media. However, both the plan of the building and the signs found in it listing the products given out indicate that it served as a storage facility. Hanging gardens could be placed on the terraces of the citadel or ziggurat.
The second palace stood behind the city wall on a special ledge, surrounded by a common channel with the wall. It arose at the end of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and is famous for its "museum" where antiquities collected by the king, including cuneiform tablets, were discovered. A Persian stele was also found there. Tsar Darius I, showing that the "museum" was preserved under the Achaemenids.
The third, the so-called. summer, the palace is open under the Babil hill, in the extreme north. the end of the city, where the wall approached the Euphrates. Only the 18 m high base remained of the palace.
Religion is well studied. architecture, the most striking manifestation of Babylonian culture in general. The temples were not standard, but had a similar layout: a square or rectangular courtyard, usually with pilasters or buttresses, surrounded the rooms, possibly in 2 levels. On the short side there was a suite of 2-3 rooms, with a passage along the central axis. The statue of the deity stood in the last of them, on the podium. Rooms for priests were sometimes added to the main block.
The main sanctuary of V.-Esagila, first mentioned in Old Babylonian texts, is located about a kilometer south of the south. palace, under the largest hill (not completely excavated). It was a square building, each side of which was 420 m long. Its complex included several. sanctuaries, the main of which, the temple of Marduk, stood in the west, a gate in the facade with towers served as a passage to the temple. According to the inscription, Nebuchadnezzar II “covered with sparkling gold” and “made her shine like the Sun” her cella. The temples of the goddesses Ishtar, Ninmah, a well-preserved temple of Naboo, etc. were also excavated and restored. Sveta. At the top of the tower, to which an external staircase led, was the sanctuary of Marduk, faced with glazed bricks, its walls and ceilings were covered with gold and decorated with precious stones. From it only a square base of several. rows of bricks (the rest was destroyed by King Xerxes I in the 5th century BC or reused for buildings).
The reign of the Achaemenids, Seleucids and the Parthian period are represented by chance finds. All in. parts of the settlement are open several. houses of the Achaemenid era, in the south - a large building with columns, to which it adjoins standing. The hill of rubbish left after the clearing of the ruins of the ziggurat by the soldiers of Alexander the Great was preserved until the beginning of the restoration of the con. XX century Some influence of the Greek. culture confirm the theater and gymnasiums in the east. parts of the city (currently restored), as well as a large number of burials with statuettes made of clay and alabaster from the Hellenistic period.
Officially, Babylon ceased to be the capital with the construction of Seleucus I Nicator of Seleucia on the river. The tiger and the resettlement of the inhabitants of Babylon there, but the city remained an important religion. and a cultural center. Cuneiform tablets indicate that the rituals in Esagil were performed as early as 93 BC. The theater and gymnasiums were rebuilt under the Seleucids. The last monument to ancient Babylon, a cuneiform astronomical text, dates from A.D. 75.
The settlement continued to exist in the 1st millennium A.D., as evidenced by the buildings of the Sassanid era, found northwest of the south. palace. Apparently, before the founding of neighboring Hilla in the XI century. it was preserved on the great hill of Amran.
The early layers of Babylon are poorly understood. They date back to the third dynasty of Ur (2111-2003 BC) (first mentioned in connection with the construction of the temple in the Akkadian era, late III millennium BC). However, in the central part of Babylon, several have been studied. houses of the era of the Kassite kings (XVI-XII centuries) and pits for firing ceramics with a glazed surface.
Lit .: Koldewey R. The Excavations at Babylon. L., 1914; idem. Das wiedererstehende Babylon. Lpz., 19254, 19905; Unger E. Babylon: Die heilige Stadt nach der Beschreibung der Babylonier. B., 1931, 1970; Saggs H. W. The Greatness that was Babylon. N. Y. 1962; The Archaeological Revival of Babylon Project // Sumer. 1979. Vol. 35; Oates J. Babylon. L. 19792, 1986; Lloyd S. Archeology of Mesopotamia: Per. from English M., 1984; Vicari J. Les ziggurats de Tchoga-Zanbil (Dur-Untash) et de Babylone // Le dessin d "architecture dans les sociétés antiques. Leiden, 1985. P. 47-57; Babylon: Focus mesopotamischer Geschichte, Wiege früher Gelehrsamkeit, Mythos in der Moderne : Colloq d Deutschen Orient-Ges 1998 Berlin / Hrsg J. Renger Saarbrucken 1999 Mieroop M van de Reading Babylon AJA 2003 Vol 107 No. 2 P. 257 -275.
L. A. Belyaev
Babylon in the Bible
In the Holy. The scriptures of the name of Babylon and the power bearing its name acquire a deep symbolic meaning and are perceived as the personification of evil on a universal scale, but sometimes - as an instrument of God's providence. The first mentions are in the stories of the book. Genesis about the initial history of mankind, where they are associated with human pride, reaching the level of theomachy. According to Gen. 10. 8-10, Babylon entered the kingdom of Ham's grandson Nimrod, who "began to be strong on earth." Genesis 11. 1-9 tells about the intention of people to build a tower to heaven in order to "make a name for themselves" and the destruction of this enterprise by the Lord by mixing languages (see Tower of Babel). The place where the tower was built is called Babylon (Heb. (2 Kings 25. 6-7; 2 Chronicles 35.17; Jer 52.10-11; Ps 136.7), idolatry (Jer 51.44, 47, 52; cf. : Is 46.1) and sorcery (Is 47.12) .However, the strengthening of Babylon is included in the Divine providence. It is the Lord who gives her sword to the king (Eze 30. 24-25) and delivers into his hands Judah and the kingdoms surrounding her (Jer.23 1-10; 27. 1-7). Babylon is a cup sent by God "with the wine of fury", which all nations must drink (Jer 25.15-29; 51.7), the hammer, which the Lord strikes people and destroys kingdoms (Jer 51.20), the instrument of God's judgment over them, and above all over Judah, who defiled herself with numerous sins. -29).
The lot of the inhabitants of Judea becomes the Babylonian captivity for the time provided by the Lord (70 years according to Jer 25.11; 29.10; 2 Chronicles 36.21), and it is the Jews who were taken captive who, according to the word of the prophet, will be the people of God and heirs of the promises (Jer 24 ). After the time predetermined by the Lord, V. comes to its historical collapse, and the exodus from the city for the Jewish captives, who were cleansed by trial, becomes possible. The prophets solemnly call for the exodus from Babylon (Is 48.20; 52.11; Jer 50.8; 51.6), the word of liberation from captivity for the people of God turns out to be a consolation (Is 40. 1-2) and gospel (Is 40 . 9; 52.7). For the city itself, the time of judgment comes, it will be completely destroyed (Is 13; 14.6-27; 21.1-10; 47; Jer 50-51). In the prophetic description of this judgment, eschatological and messianic features are strong. Persis. King Cyrus, through whom Babylon comprehends God's punishment, is directly called the Lord's “anointed” (Is 45. 1-6; cf. Is 41. 1-5), and the fall of Babylon will mean the coming of “the Lord's favorable summer and the day of God's vengeance "(Is 61. 1-3)," the day of the Lord "(Is 13 6-13).
In the book of the prophet Daniel, the theme of the role of Babylon in world history occupies an important place, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar is presented as a proud idolater, but he is repeatedly forced to recognize the greatness of the God of the Jews and humble himself before Him (Dan 2-4). In a vision (Dan 2), the kingdom of Nebuchadnezzar appears as one of the world powers replacing each other before the establishment of the eternal kingdom of the Heavenly God.
In NT, the name of this city is associated with the idea of the Babylonian captivity as one of the most important events of Sacred. history of the OT, and also serves as an apocalyptic symbol of the godless empire, the destruction of which Christians hope. Evangelist Matthew in the genealogy of Jesus Christ (Matthew 1. 1-17) understands the event of the Babylonian captivity as the most important milestone of the Holy. stories: the time from Abraham to Christ is divided by the evangelist into 3 periods: from Abraham to David, from David to the migration to Babylon, from the migration to Babylon to Christ. Despite the catastrophe of captivity, God fulfilled his Messiah promises. The significance of the Babylonian captivity in the history of the people of God is emphasized in the speech of the first martyr Stephen before the Sanhedrin: quoting Am 2. 25-27 (LXX), instead of resettling “beyond Damascus”, Stephen speaks of the resettlement “beyond Babylon” (Acts 7: 42-43).
The implications of the closing words of 1 Peter 5. 13 (“the elect like you greet you, the church in Babylon, and Mark my son”) has been the subject of controversy for some time. The absence of K.-L. church tradition linking the apostles Peter, Siluan (1 Peter 5. 12) and Mark with this area, as well as the fact that during the reign of im. Claudius (41-54), the Jews were expelled from Babylon, which limited opportunities for apostolic preaching there (Ios. Flav. Antiq. XVIII 9. 5-9). The opinion is more substantiated, according to which in 1 Peter 5. 13 it is said about Babylon in Egypt, near St. Cairo. But although the ancient church tradition connects ap. Mark with Egypt (Euseb. Hist. Eccl. II), about the stay of the ap. Peter in Egypt, early sources do not say. In addition, in the 1st century. according to R. Kh. egypt. Babylon was an insignificant rome. fortification and could hardly have been known "to the newcomers scattered in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia" (1 Peter 1. 1-2), to whom the message is addressed. The most widespread view was that according to which Babylon in this case means Rome, where the stay of the apostles Peter and Mark is firmly attested by tradition (Iren. Adv. Haer. 3.1; Euseb. Hist. Eccl. II. 14-15; VI. 14 . 5-7). The metaphorical name of the city, i.e., here indicates that Christians are aliens and strangers in this world (cf. Rome became like ancient Babylon in its rebellion against the people of God. This symbolic relationship between Babylon and Rome is also found in the Jewish apocalyptic (syrApkBar. 67.7; Syb. 5.143, 158; cf .: Billerbeck. Bd. 3. S. 816). It is also characteristic of the Revelation of John the Theologian (Rev. 14. 8; 16. 19; 17. 5), where the name Babylon is directly called "mystery" (μυστήριον), which emphasizes its symbolism (18. 2, 10, 21). V. is presented as the universal capital of evil: “the great city reigning over the kings of the earth”, “the great harlot,” “sitting on a crimson beast,” “clothed in purple and purple,” “intoxicated with the blood of saints,” with which they “committed adultery earthly kings "and" from great luxury "a cut" earthly merchants got rich ". To this city, the Seer opposes “the holy city of Jerusalem, new, coming down from God out of heaven” (21. 1-22. 5; cf. Ezek. 40-48). Rome is also referred to as “the seven mountains on which the wife sits” (Rev. 17.9). In the ancient Church this view was expressed by Tertullian (Adv. Marc. 3:13), after. blzh. Jerome and Blzh. Augustine, followed by the whole zap. tradition before Erasmus of Rotterdam and J. Calvin, who rejected this understanding (cf. Andr. Caes. Apoc. 53). This great city awaits the judgment of God, causing the general lamentation of “kings,” “merchants,” and “shipbuilders,” and the exultation of “heaven, the holy apostles and prophets” (Rev. 18). In the description of the judgment, there are clear allusions to the Old Testament texts associated with the fall of Babylon, for example. the exclamation “Babylon is fallen, fell” (Rev 14.8; 18.2; cf .: Is 21.9), a call to the people of God to leave Babylon (Rev 18.4; cf: Is 48.20; 52.11 ; Jer 50.8; 51.6), an indication of the golden cup in the hand of the “great harlot” (Rev 17.4; cf. Jer 51.7). the eschatological image of Babylon from the Apocalypse correlates with the image of Rome precisely in the aspect of theomachist pride, and therefore it cannot mean Rome, which has ceased to exist in its historical existence. statehood, the attitude of the first Christians to it was quite loyal.
Lit .: Chetyrkin V. V . Apocalypse of St. ap. John the Theologian: isagogic. issled. Pg., 1916; Kuhn K. G. Βαβυλών // TWNT. Bd. 1. S. 512; Hunzinger C. H. Babylon als Deckname für Rom und die Datierung des 1. Petrusbriefs // Gottes Wort und Gottes Land: H.-W. Hertzberg zum 70. Geburtstag / Hrsg. H. Rewentlow. Gött. 1965 S. 67-76; Uhlig S. Die typologische Bedeutung des Begriffes Babylon // Andrews Univ. Seminary Stud. Berrien Spring (Mich.), 1974. Vol. 12. P. 112-125; Beauvery R. L "Apocalypse au risqué de la numismatique: Babylone, la grand prostituée et le sisième roi Vespasien et la déesse Rome // RB. 1983. T. 90. P. 242-261; Thiede C. P. Babylon, der andere Ort: Anm.zu 1 Petr. 5.13 und Apg 12.17 // Biblica. 1986. Bd. 67. S. 532-538; Reimer D. J. The Oracles Against Babylon in Jeremiah 50-51: A Horror Among the Nations San Francisco (Calif.), 1993.
A. S. Nebolsin
There are many semi-legendary periods in the history of mankind. The cities and kingdoms that existed at that time are sometimes shrouded in a whole host of myths and legends. Even professional archaeologists and historians have quite a bit of data relating to those times, let alone ordinary people. Do you know when the Babylonian kingdom was formed?
Babylon is a city of biblical proportions, it is constantly mentioned by almost all outstanding thinkers, scientists and military leaders of those years, but the history of this amazing monument of ancient civilizations is told much less often. In order to dispel the veil of secrecy over this story, we have prepared this article. Read on and find out!
Prerequisites for the emergence
In the XIX-XX centuries before the birth of Christ, the Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom, which was located on the territory of Mesopotamia, disintegrated. As a result of its collapse, many other smaller states were formed.
The city of Lars in the north immediately declared itself independent. The kingdom of Mari was formed on the Euphrates River, Ashur arose on the Tigris, and the state of Eshnunna appeared in the Diyala valley. It was then that the rise of the city of Babylon began, the name of which can be translated as the Gate of God. The Amorite (first Babylonian) dynasty then ascended the throne. Historians believe that its representatives ruled from 1894 to 1595 BC. There are no exact data, but the king of Sumuabum is considered to be its founder. That's when the Babylonian kingdom was formed. Of course, in those years, he was still far from full prosperity and power.
Advantages
Babylon favorably differed from many of its neighbors in its position: it was equally well suited for defense and for expansion in the territory of the opposing kingdoms. It was located in the place where the majestic Tigris merged with the Euphrates. It was full of water, which was used in irrigation systems, and the most important trade arteries of that time converged right there.
The flourishing of the city is associated with the name of the famous Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC), who was not only a talented manager, but also a scientist, astronomer, commander and sophist. First, he makes a military alliance with Larsa in order to free his hands to attack the southern cities. Soon, Hammurabi concludes an alliance with Mari, where at that time the friendly king Zimrilim ruled. With his help, the ruler of Babylon completely defeated and subjugated Eshnunna. Simply put, the Babylonian kingdom was formed in the period from the 20th to the 19th centuries BC, after which it quickly began to gain weight in the political niche of that time.
After that, Hammurabi no longer needed Mari: he tore up the allied agreement and attacked the possessions of yesterday's partner. At first he was able to quickly subjugate the city, and even Zimlirim remained on his throne. But later he did not like being a pawn, and therefore he rebelled. In response, Babylon not only re-conquered the city, but also razed its walls and the ruler's palace to the ground. By that time, the once mighty Assyria remained in the North, but its rulers immediately recognized themselves as governors of Babylon.
That's when it was formed in the modern sense of the word. It was large and powerful, its rulers welcomed scientists, engineers and architects, philosophers and doctors.
Hammurabi's laws
But the king of the Babylonian kingdom, Hammurabi, is in many ways known not at all for his conquests, but for the code of laws that he personally issued:
- In the event that the builder who built the house did it badly and the building collapsed, killing its owner, the builder should be executed.
- A doctor who performed an unsuccessful operation lost his right hand.
- A free man who hid a slave in his house will be executed.
These laws of the Babylonian kingdom were carved into huge basalt pillars that stood at all ends of the Babylonian kingdom.
What was the rise of Babylon?
During the time of this ruler, agriculture began to develop rapidly in those parts. Babylonian scientists made great strides in the irrigation of desert lands: one of the canals was so large that it was respectfully nicknamed the "Hammurabi River".
The development of cattle breeding was no less active. More and more artisans appear in the state. Domestic and international trade is growing and expanding. In particular, at that time it was this country that became the main center for the export of expensive leather, oil and dates. Metals, ceramics and slaves flowed like a river to the domestic market. In a word, the Babylonian kingdom flourished under Hammurabi.
Social features
It is believed that the country had three First, free people. This layer was called "avelum", which meant "man". Children of free people until they came of age were called "mar avelim" - "child of man". An artisan and warrior, a merchant and a state clerk could belong to this social stratum. In a word, there were no caste prejudices, the laws of the Babylonian kingdom said that anyone could be free.
There was also a class of dependent people (not slaves!), Who were called "muskenum" - "bowing" servants. "Simply put, the dependent were people who worked on the royal land. They should not be confused with slaves: the" leaning "had property, their rights were defended in court, they had their own slaves.
Finally, the lowest stratum of society, which the Babylonian kingdom could not do without - slaves, vardum. One could get among them in the following ways:
- If the person was a prisoner of war.
- Debtors who could not pay off their debts.
- Those who became slaves by a court verdict (for some grave offenses).
The peculiarity of the Babylonian slaves was that they could have some kind of property. If the slave owner had children from his slave, then they (with the consent of the father) could well become his official heirs with the receipt of the status of a free person. Simply put, unlike the same Ancient India, in Babylon the slaves could hope for a serious improvement in their debtor, who had worked out the debt, again became free. A valuable prisoner of war could buy himself freedom. It was worse for the criminals, who, with rare exceptions, became slaves for life.
State structure
The king, who stood at the head of the state, possessed "divine", unlimited power. He personally owned about 30-50% of all land in the country. The king could take care of their use himself, or he could rent it out. The execution of the royal orders and laws was monitored by the royal court.
The tax authority was responsible for collecting taxes. They were charged in silver, as well as in the form of natural products - for example, grain. They took taxes on livestock, handicraft products. To ensure unquestioning obedience to the royal power, the state used detachments of heavy and light warriors, redum and bairum. Ever since the formation of the Babylonian kingdom, the city of Babylon has always attracted professional soldiers: they were favored here, they received honor and respect. Unsurprisingly, even during a period of decline, the state's army was able to delay the fall of the country for a long time.
For service, a good soldier could easily get a house with a garden, a considerable allotment of land and livestock. He paid for this only with a good service. The gigantic bureaucratic apparatus, whose representatives monitored the execution of royal orders in the localities, became the trouble of Babylon from the very beginning. The officials of the sovereign, the shakkanakku, were supposed to organize effective interaction between the tsarist administration and local self-government bodies. The latter included community councils and councils of elders, rabianums.
Religion tended to monotheism: despite the existence of different-sized deities, there was one main god - Marduk, who was considered the creator of all that exists, was responsible for the fate of people, animals and plants, for the entire Babylonian kingdom.
First fall
During the reign of Hammurabi's son, Samsu-iluna (1749-1712 BC), internal contradictions began to sharply escalate. From the south, the state began to push the Elamites, who captured the cities of the Sumerians one after another. The city of Isin declared its independence, and King Ilumailu became the founder of a new dynasty. A new state, Mitanni, is also emerging in the Northwest.
This was a heavy blow, since Babylon was cut off from the most important trade routes that led to Asia Minor and the Mediterranean coast. Finally, warlike Kassite tribes began to raid regularly. In general, the entire history of the Babylonian kingdom clearly shows that a weakened state instantly turns out to be the prey of stronger and more successful neighbors.
Point in 1595 BC NS. put the Hittites, who defeated the army and captured Babylon. Thus ended the Old Babylonian period, which lasted only three hundred years. The first dynasty ceased to exist. The formation of the Babylonian kingdom of the "Kassite pattern" began.
Kassite dynasty
The Kassites themselves came from many of the hill tribes, which intensified immediately after the death of Hammurabi. Around 1742 BC NS. their leader Gandash invaded the kingdom and immediately declared himself "King of the four cardinal points." But in reality, the Kassites succeeded in subjugating the entire kingdom to themselves only after the successful campaign of the Hittites. They immediately brought a lot of new things into the military doctrine of Babylon, starting to actively use the cavalry. On the other hand, some stagnation began in agriculture. The rich and ancient Babylonian culture was favorably received by the conquerors.
Moreover, King Agum II was able to return the statues of the god Marduk and the goddess Tsarpanit, which were captured by the Hittites. The Kassites showed themselves to be excellent rulers, under whom temples were actively built and restored, and culture and science developed rapidly. Pretty soon they were completely assimilated by the Babylonians.
However, they were not very good politicians and warriors. The ancient Babylonian kingdom quickly becomes dependent on Egypt, and soon - on the state of Mitanni with the Hittite kingdom. Assyria is developing rapidly, whose troops already in the XIII century BC inflicted a number of painful defeats on Kassite Babylon. In 1155, the dynasty of conquerors also ceased to exist, losing to the Assyrians.
Intermediate period, reign of Nebuchadnezzar the First
The Assyrians, who closely watched their decrepit neighbor, did not fail to take advantage of his growing weakness. They were also helped by the aspirations of the Elamites, who regularly began to invade the territory of Babylon. Already in the middle of the XII century BC, they were able to completely break his resistance, and the last king of the Kassites, Ellil-nadin-akhhe, was captured. The Elamites at this time continued to make military campaigns in other areas of the country.
The city of Ising, which had been independent for some time, managed to accumulate strength at that time, and therefore took over the baton in the fight against the enemy invasion. The pinnacle of his power was the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar I (1126-1105 BC), who once again brought the state to a flourishing (short-term). Near the fortress of Der, his troops inflicted a severe defeat on the Elamites, and then, invading Elam, enslaved him.
Fight against the Aramaic
Around the middle of the 11th century BC, the nomadic Aramaic tribes became a real curse for the Babylonians and Assyrians. In the face of this danger, irreconcilable rivals united several times, forming strong military alliances. Despite this, the enterprising Arameans managed to firmly settle on the northwestern borders of the Babylonian kingdom after three centuries.
However, not all tribes caused so many problems. At about the same time, the Chaldean people began to play a significant role in the life of the state. In those centuries, they lived along the shores of the Persian Gulf, in the lower reaches of the Euphrates and the Tigris. Already in the ninth century, they firmly occupied the southern part of the Babylonian kingdom and began to move south, gradually assimilating with the Babylonians. Like the Kassites in the recent past, they preferred to livestock and hunt. Agriculture played a much smaller role in their lives.
In those years, the country was divided into 14 districts. Since the 12th century BC, Babylon again becomes the capital. As before, the tsar had in his hands vast plots of land, which he presented to the soldiers for their service. In the army, in addition to the traditional infantry, cavalry and chariot squads began to play a huge role, which at that time were extremely effective on the battlefield. But the borders of the Babylonian kingdom were already beginning to be attacked by old enemies ...
Assyrian invasion
From the end of the 9th century, the Assyrians again took up their own, more and more often invading the borders of the country. Assyria itself gradually acquired the features of a powerful and strong state. In the middle of the 7th century BC, their king Tiglathpalasar the Third invaded the northern borders of Babylon, inflicting severe defeats on the Chaldeans. In 729, the kingdom was once again completely captured.
However, the Assyrians (contrary to their custom) retained the separate status of Babylon. But during the time of Sargon the Second, they temporarily lost control of the newly conquered lands. This is due to the fact that the Chaldean sovereign Marduk-apla-iddin declared himself the sole king of the country, capturing its capital. He entered into an alliance with the Elamites, his recent enemies. At first, the allies were successful, but soon Sargon, greatly wounded and annoyed by what had happened, sent his best troops to suppress the uprising, and then he himself was crowned in Babylon, finally strengthening his royal status.
At the beginning of 700-703, the restless Marduk-apla-iddin again tried to go against Assyria, but this time his undertaking did not end with anything good for the country. In 692 BC. e kingdom enters into a military alliance with the Arameans and Elamites. In the battle of Halul, the Assyrians and Babylonians suffered equally heavy losses; neither side had any obvious success.
But two years later, the king of Assyria, Sinanchherib, laid siege to Babylon. A year later, the city fell and a terrible massacre began. Most of the inhabitants were killed, the rest became slaves. The once majestic capital was completely ravaged and flooded. At that time, the map of the Babylonian kingdom was beaten, the state ceased to exist. However, not for long.
Rebuilding Babylon
Soon, the successor of Sinanhherib, Esarhaddon, ascended the throne, who did not overly welcome the "excesses" of his predecessor. The new king not only ordered to restore the destroyed city, but also freed many of its inhabitants and ordered them to return home.
Shamash-shum-ukin became the king, who ruled the country with the rights of governor. But in 652, he, wanting universal power, concludes an alliance with the Arabs, Arameans and Elamites, after which he again declares war on Assyria. The battle again took place at the fortress of Der and again no one could win a convincing victory. The Assyrians went for a trick: by staging a palace coup in Elom, they put the powerful ally of the Babylonians out of action. After that, they laid siege to Babylon and in 648 BC staged a brutal reprisal against all the surviving inhabitants.
Fall of Assyria and New Babylon
Despite this, the desire to throw off the oppression of the cruel Assyrians did not weaken. Around 626 BC, another uprising broke out, led by the Chaldean Nabopalasar (Nabu-apla-utsur). He again entered into an alliance with Elam, who had already recovered from the machinations of the Assyrians, after which the allied forces still managed to inflict a number of serious defeats on the common enemy. In October 626, Nabopolassar was recognized by the Babylonian nobility, after which he was crowned in the city, founding a new dynasty.
But the rebels managed to capture the first large city - Uruk - only 10 years later. They immediately tried to capture the Assyrian Ashur, but they were not successful. Help came from where they did not expect. In 614, the Medes began the conquest of the Assyrian provinces, with whom the Babylonians soon formed an alliance. Already in 612, they, the Medes and Scythians laid siege to Nineveh, the capital of the enemy. The city fell, and all of its inhabitants were massacred. Since then, the borders of the Babylonian kingdom under Hammurabi II began to expand rapidly.
In 609 BC, the remnants of the Assyrian army were defeated. In 605, the Babylonians successfully captured Syria and Palestine, which Egypt claimed at that time. At the same time, Nebuchadnezzar II ascended the throne of Babylon. By 574 BC. e he managed to capture Jerusalem and Tire. An era of prosperity has begun. It was then that the famous incredibly developed science, architecture and politics were laid. Thus, the Babylonian kingdom was formed a second time in 605.
However, the era of prosperity ended pretty soon. On the borders of the state, other opponents appeared, the Persians. Unable to withstand confrontation with them, in 482 Babylon finally turned into one of the Persian satrapies.
Now you know when the Babylonian kingdom was formed. We hope you found the article interesting.
Long before the heyday of Ancient Greece, developed powerful powers already existed. One of them is the famous Sumer. It was located on the territory of modern Iraq in the geographical and historical region of Mesopotamia. I must say that this name was invented by the Greeks. It literally means "between rivers". This large region did indeed stretch across a flat area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. There were many city-states in Mesopotamia. One of them is Babylon. In which country and where is the city of the legendary Sumerians located now? Why hasn't it survived to this day? What periods of prosperity and decline have you experienced? This is what our article is about.
Eden in Iraq
There is an assumption that Noah's Ark lies on Mount Ararat, and the Garden of Eden rustled in the lands of Mesopotamia. Even in religious literature, there are claims that Eden was located exactly there, at the confluence of two rivers. The once famous city of Babylon also flourished here, which in translation from the local dialect meant "the gates of paradise". But there are so many interweaving in the history of those places that not even all historians can understand them. The Babylonian civilization is often called in another way: Sumerian-Akkadian. Where is Babylon today? This place is known to many tourists. Lovers of ancient history regret that little is left of the once great city, but everyone can look at its ruins, walk on the sacred ("divine") land, touch the centuries-old stones.
From Neolithic to Sumer
Before answering where Babylon is, let's tell a little about the time when it flourished. Traces of ancient settlements in Iraq can be found everywhere. During the Neolithic period, cattle breeding and agriculture were already well developed in the Middle East. For 7 thousand years BC. NS. there developed crafts: pottery, spinning. And after about 3 thousand years, people mastered the smelting of copper and gold. At the same time, cities with unique architecture began to develop there. Arches, for example, first appeared there, and not in ancient Rome. Written language, political and legal norms of social life appeared. The settlements of Ur, Uruk and Erebu are being built. These were the largest city-states of the first civilization of Mesopotamia - Sumerian. She was crushed by the Semitic tribes, united in the kingdom of Akkad. Under King Sargon, Sumer was defeated, and the territory of Mesopotamia was united for the first time. But the two states continued to coexist. Akkad controlled the north of the region and Sumer controlled the south. Unfortunately, they had many enemies who dreamed of capturing fertile blooming lands. When the Amorite herders came from the foothills, the great state ceased to exist. The Elamites settled on the territory of Sumer.
Rise of Babylon
For all the time of civil strife, this city, which was far from the borders, suffered less than others. The Sumerians called him Kadingirra. The city was built on the banks of the Euphrates, near the modern settlement of El Hill, 80 kilometers from Baghdad. There was the residence of the tax collector. It was in this provincial town that the Amorite leader Sumuabum settled, making it not just a capital, but creating the Babylonian kingdom. Representatives of the dynasty of the Amorite kings fought a lot. Therefore, they attached the main importance to the fortifications of Babylon, in connection with which they built a defensive wall around it. But temples were also actively rebuilt at this time, sanctuaries were erected. Five rulers of this kind were replaced before Babylon began to rule in Mesopotamia. In 1792 BC. NS. the throne was taken by Hammurabi. Taking advantage of the constant civil strife of his neighbors, he managed to subjugate most of the coastal lands near the Tigris and Euphrates to Babylon. In forty years, the first centralized state of Western Asia, the Old Babylonian kingdom, was created. Its basis can be considered the turn of the XIX-XVIII centuries BC.
Center of the universe
Babylon very quickly became one of the centers of the world. He had such a position until 1595 (before the birth of Christ). His patron God was Marduk, who became one of the main Mesopotamian deities. The city grew richer, which was reflected in its appearance. New walls, gates and wide streets, through which crowded temple processions could pass, were not erected chaotically, but according to a plan. Residents of the capital were not drafted into the army and did not pay taxes, it had the right to self-government.
The decline of Babylon
Hammurabi's successors were unable to maintain the high position of Babylon. Its decline gradually begins. For a century and a half, the kings of the I Babylonian dynasty fought with other contenders for power in Mesopotamia. The Kassite mountain tribes took advantage of the weakening of the state. Thanks to the defensive structures erected in the northeast during the reign of Hammurabi, their first onslaught was stopped. At the same time, it was necessary to constantly suppress the uprisings of the southern, "Sumerian" provinces. The cities of Lars, Ur, Catullou, Nipur rebelled alternately or simultaneously. Finally, these areas come out of subordination to Babylon in the 17th century BC. Asia Minor at that time already almost entirely belonged to the Hittite kingdom. His troops invaded Babylon, completely plundered it, destroyed many cultural monuments. Some of the inhabitants were executed, some were sold into slavery. Where is the city of Babylon now? You will learn more about this later.
A new beginning
The Hittite invasion marked the end of the Old Babylonian kingdom. Soon these lands were subdued by the Kassites. The Middle Babylonian period began. The state was in decline, especially in the economic and cultural spheres. The authority of the state was also low in these centuries. The struggle for leadership was between Egypt, the Hittite kingdom and the country of Mitanni. Pharaohs, judging by the information that has come down to our time, treated the neighbor who had recently threatened them with disdain. However, it was a long period of stability, when it was possible to establish trade ties between different regions of the state destroyed during the civil strife.
Another destruction of Babylon
The fall of the III Babylonian dynasty, which is called the Kassite dynasty, coincided with the rise of Assyria. In addition, the eastern neighbor, Elam, rises again. At the end of the XIII century BC. NS. the king of Assyria took possession of Babylon, destroying the walls of the city and even transporting the most revered statue of the supreme god Marduk to Ashur (his capital). The Assyrian ruler Sinacherib became famous for the fact that in 689 BC. NS. not only captured Babylon, but almost destroyed it. The restoration of the power of the glorious city began only after the weakening of Assyria. The city was then ruled by the leaders of the Chaldean tribes. One of them, Nabopalasar, led an uprising that ended in the defeat of the Assyrian army under the walls of Babylon. The New Babylonian period was marked by the restoration of the former power of the legendary state.
Nebuchadnezzar
The restoration of the city began after the death of Sinacherib. The state gradually restored its former power. The time of greatest prosperity is 605-562 BC. BC, when Nabushadnezzar II ruled. This is the same Nebuchadnezzar who destroyed Jerusalem and took many thousands of Jews into captivity. During his reign, the country stretched from Iran to Egypt. Unprecedented wealth contributed to the rapid construction. Thanks to cuneiform records, Herodotus and archaeological excavations, we can recreate the appearance of Babylon at that time.
What the "Capital of the World" looked like
The Euphrates divided Babylon in half. On the plan, it occupied almost 10 square kilometers. Three rows of fortress walls were erected around, huge towers and eight gates were built. It was extremely difficult to approach them. In the center of the Old City there was a 7-tiered ziggurat, which is considered the prototype of the Tower of Babel from the Bible. The main temple of the god Marduk towered there, and a market functioned nearby. The Great Palace of Nebuchadnezzar II was also located here. It was a huge complex that was under construction during the reign of Nabopalasar. It included the houses of officials and the throne room. The palace impressed visitors with its size and luxury. On its embossed walls made of colored bricks, the craftsmen depicted the "tree of life" and walking lions. There was one of the seven wonders of the world in the palace - the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Thus, the "Lord of the half-light" consoled his wife, the princess from Media, who longed for her homeland.
House of the Babylonian
A 123 meters long bridge led to New Town. Residential quarters were located there. How did the ordinary people of Babylon live? The appearance of these dwellings is known from excavations. These were two-story houses. The lower part, to protect it from erosion, was laid out of fired bricks, and the second floor and the inner walls were made of raw bricks. Small windows were made only under the ceiling, so that the light came almost exclusively through the door. They washed their feet from a jug of water in the entryway. Various utensils were also located there. From there one could get into the inner courtyard. The wealthier people had a swimming pool there, and a wooden gallery ran along the inner wall. There was certainly a front room, from there a passage led to a small courtyard inaccessible to outsiders, where the owners built a home altar. They also tried to bury the dead there. Back in the III millennium BC. NS. the Babylonians began to use stools, tables, and beds. But most likely there was only one bed. The owner and his wife slept on it. The rest were on mats or just on the floor.
The city of a thousand languages
Babylon of the last period was for its time a real metropolis. It was home to about 200 thousand people of various nationalities. These were the Elamites, Egyptians, Jews, Medes. Everyone kept their traditions, spoke their native language, wore their own national clothes. But the main language was considered Sumerian. Children received their education in schools (e-dubs). Those who completed the full course of study possessed knowledge encyclopedic for those times. In addition to literature and writing, graduates studied mathematics, astronomy, and land surveying. In Babylon, the sexagesimal system of reckoning was adopted. We still divide the hour by 60 minutes, and the minute by 60 seconds. Preserved in cuneiform libraries, literary works of those years have come down to us.
What is the name of the country where the city of Babylon is now
Despite the military power, flourishing trade, and cultural advances, the city of Babylon again fell into decay. In the first centuries BC in the east of Mesopotamia, Persia began to acquire power. In 538, Babylon was taken by the king Cyrus, but even after that it retained the status of the capital. The Persian Empire included the Eastern Mediterranean and Egypt. Mesopotamia has ceased to play a leading role in the region. But Babylon was still the center of science, culture and crafts. The current situation did not suit its residents, who were making attempts to regain their former power. After another uprising, Xerxes stripped the city of its status. Household life was still going on. It was then that Herodotus visited Babylon, who wrote enthusiastic words about him. The next conqueror was Alexander the Great. He wanted to make mighty Babylon the capital of his empire, but then founded a new city nearby, which he named after himself.
Where is Babylon now? In which country? The history of the city is sad. At first there remained a small settlement, but after the conquest of Mesopotamia by the Arabs in 634, it also disappeared. Even the place where Babylon was located was forgotten for almost two thousand years. It is now located in modern-day Iraq (formerly Persia). The only surviving building of that time is the theater. The administrative center of the country closest to the destroyed city has half a million inhabitants. So where is Babylon now? It is several tens of kilometers from Baghdad. Modern Babylon (where you already know) is the largest open-air museum in the world.
