Which of the following is related to the Renaissance?

The invention of printing;

The invention of the telescope;

Discovery of cell theory;

The evolutionary doctrine of Darwin;

Appeal to the ancient heritage.

Features that are characteristic of the philosophy of the Renaissance:

The assertion of pantheism as the dominant worldview;

Discovery of human individuality;

Aesthetic character of anthropocentrism;

Mysticism in ontology and epistemology;

Materialism in understanding social processes.

The pantheism of the philosophy of the Renaissance gravitated:

To the denial of divine creation;

To the deification of nature;

Identification of it with God;

Everything indicated.

Renaissance humanism is distinguished by:

Moral and ethical orientation;

aesthetic orientation;

social orientation;

political orientation.

According to humanists, the complex of humanitarian disciplines that contribute to the education of the human in a person included, in particular:

Grammar;

Philosophy;

All specified.

The main attribute of matter according to Descartes is:

Divisibility;

length;

Eternity;

Indivisibility.

What does Hegel see as the significance of the Reformation for culture?

Rationalized faith;

She laid the foundation for secular culture;

Became the basis of modern rationality;

Combine reason and faith.

What did the enlighteners see as the criterion of historical progress?

freedom;

justice;

Equality;

Private property.

? The Renaissance is a period in the development of European culture, incl. and philosophy, which covers:

VIII - X centuries;

X - XIV centuries;

XV - XVI centuries;

? The correct position is:

Renaissance and Renaissance are different eras;

renaissance renaissance background;

The Renaissance precedes the Renaissance;

Renaissance and Renaissance mean the same thing.

In socio-economic terms, the Renaissance is:

The formation of feudal relations;

The beginning of the transition of society to bourgeois relations;

The expansion of the slaveholding formation;

End of primitive society.

? The Renaissance in spiritual terms is characterized by the dominance of:

Arts;

Religions;

Philosophy.

? The Renaissance is characterized by:

!+ ………Antiquity and the Middle Ages with the dominance of ancient values;

Complete denial of medieval culture;

Mechanical reproduction of ancient spiritual values;

The revival of ancient culture, its rethinking in new conditions.

? The main work of N. Kuzansky:

Praise of stupidity;

About scientific ignorance;

Phenomenology of spirit;

Materialism and empirio-criticism.

Their ideas were substantiated heliocentric system Copernicus in the fight against the scholasticism of the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic tradition:

D. Bruno;

Galileo;

Rotterdam;

Cusa;

Machiavelli.

? The undisputed head of the current in humanism called "Christian humanism":

Cusa;

Rotterdam;

Galileo;

D. Bruno.

Not suitable option:

The Renaissance is a time of energetic, enterprising adventurous people who achieved fame and fortune;

In the Renaissance, a person becomes a historical being, because he turns to the origins;

The Renaissance man is a wanderer, a sinner by birth on a sinful earth;

The Renaissance is characterized by anthropocentrism.

? On what principle did Copernicus base the new astronomical system:

Relativity;

Probabilities;

Coincidence of opposites;

Determinism.

? The social theory of T. Mora is characterized as:

Utopian socialism;

Skepticism;

War communism;

Christian humanism.

? The Catholic Church declared Copernicus and Bruno:

Saints;

Heretics;

sectarians;

Apostates.

He met the death sentence of the Inquisition with the words: “You pass sentence on me with more fear than I listen to it”:

Galileo;

Copernicus;

? How can one characterize the philosophical thinking of the Renaissance:

Anthropocentrism;

Cosmocentrism;

Theocentrism;

Technocentrism.

? The main feature of the natural philosophy of the Renaissance:

Pantheism;

Dualism;

Conventionalism.

? Representative of natural philosophy of the Renaissance:

A. Dante;

N. Copernicus;

N.Machiavelli.

? “Medicine is the restoration of the harmony of the elements that have lost their mutual balance; disease is a disorganization of the elements combined in a living organism ”- such a definition is given by an outstanding figure of the Renaissance:

Michelangelo;

Leonardo da Vinci;

Petrarch;

Donatello.

The founder of modern anatomy, who left 7 volumes of "On the structure of the human body":

Vesalius;

Paracelsus;

He laid the foundations of the mechanical-physical-chemical direction in medicine and developed a new doctrine for his time on the dosage of drugs:

Vesalius;

Paracelsus;

The main features of the culture of the Renaissance:

Dogmatism;

Theocentrism;

Humanism;

Irrationalism;

Anthropocentrism.

During the Renaissance, skepticism was characteristic of the views:

Montaigne;

Cusa;

Copernicus;

? The main work of N. Machiavelli:

! "State and Revolution";

!+ "Sovereign";

! "Science of Logic";

! "Dialectics of Nature".

? The pillars of power, according to Machiavelli are (incorrect):

bureaucracy;

Scientists;

The cult of the personality of the sovereign.

? Rationalist Philosophers:

R. Descartes;

T. Hobbes;

J. Locke;

G. Leibniz;

F. Bacon.

? Fr. Bacon highlights the misconceptions that interfere with adequate knowledge:

Idols of the family;

Idols of feelings;

Idols of form;

Theater idols;

Idols of the market square.

? The most important philosophical works of Descartes:

Discourse on method;

Praise of stupidity;

The beginnings of philosophy;

Phenomenology of spirit;

Science of logic.

? Representatives of the philosophy of the French Enlightenment:

Leibniz;

Holbach;

Lametrie;

? The position according to which the only real existence of the consciousness of a given person is recognized:

Sensationalism;

Solipsism;

Empiricism;

Creationism.

? Point out the incorrect statement:

The general humanistic spirit of the Renaissance could not but be reflected in medicine;

Problems physical education man, his health became dominant in the spiritual life of the Renaissance;

Many scientists of that time had medical education and practiced as physicians;

A person at this time is conceived as a being of a dual nature - bodily and spiritual, with the absolute priority of the spiritual principle.

? Which of the following statements is considered incorrect:

The modern era was characterized by a mechanistic way of considering physiological processes;

Descartes for the first time describes the mechanism of the unconditioned reflex, and strictly on a mechanistic basis;

In modern times, issues of epistemology come to the fore;

The mechanism of Descartes allows him to correctly explain mental phenomena.

The essence of pantheism is expressed in the proposition:

The image of God is a generalized, idealized image of a person;

God is the creator of nature, the organizer of the world;

Nature and God are identical, nature is God in things;

God is the root cause of all things, he gives the world the first impetus.

Renaissance thinker who developed the ideas of dialectics based on the principle of the coincidence of opposites:

J. Bruno;

N. Copernicus;

N.Kuzansky;

M. Montaigne.

? Who was the first of the representatives of the Renaissance to come to the conclusion that there are innumerable worlds:

Galileo;

Copernicus;

Rotterdam.

? Philosophy in the Renaissance is in alliance with:

Religion;

art;

Mythology.

? An artist who left a multi-volume anatomy and hundreds of anatomical drawings that have survived to this day:

Donatelo;

Leonardo da Vinci;

Michelangelo.

He set fire to the writings of Galen and Avicenna, declaring that he renounced all the old authorities with their errors and delusions:

Paracelsus;

? To explain the structure and functions of the body, Paracelsus used the ideas:

mechanics;

Biology;

Astronomy.

In politics, according to Machiavelli, the ruler should be guided by the principle:

The interests of the people are above all;

End justifies the means;

The ultimate goal is nothing, movement is everything;

The interests of the individual are paramount.

? Political philosophy during the Renaissance was developed by:

Copernicus;

Galileo;

Machiavelli;

Cusa.

The judgment of N. Machiavelli, which has become synonymous with cynicism in politics and has acquired the nominal meaning of "Machiavellianism":

The support of power is strength; the other pillar is the skillfully created “personality cult” of the state, the third pillar is a strong bureaucratic apparatus, etc.;

The more power the state has, the greater the threat of losing it;

Politics has its own laws, the state ... not a private person, and what is unacceptable in personal life, in the family (lie, violence, cruelty, treachery) is quite acceptable in politics;

A political compromise that suits everyone is impossible, because people's interests are too different.

A well-known representative of the reformation of the 16th century. is an:

M. Luther;

N.Machiavelli;

J. Bruno.

? New time is a period of development of culture and philosophy of European countries in:

XV - XVI centuries;

? Philosophy in the era of modern times acts in alliance with:

theology;

science;

art;

Technique.

? In the New Age of Philosophy, problems come to the fore:

Epistemology;

Ontologies;

Anthropology;

Descartes;

? Outstanding philosopher and eminent mathematician, founder of new European rationalism:

Descartes;

Spinoza;

Leibniz.

Which of the thinkers of the New Age defined the main task of his philosophical studies as the “great restoration of the sciences”:

Spinoza;

Leibniz.

The thinker who proclaimed the program - the liberation of the mind from idols:

? In the 17th century V. Garvey introduced into the practice of scientific research a method called:

vivisection;

induction;

deduction;

Analysis.

In the treatise "New Organon" he outlined the foundations of the inductive method of cognition:

J. Locke;

F. Bacon;

R. Descartes;

B. Spinoza.

To find the very first and absolutely true proposition, Descartes believes, one must first:

Verify by experience;

Doubt absolutely everything;

turn to religion;

Develop a method.

? According to Bacon, the highest and most worthy place in society should be occupied by:

! mythology;

Religion;

Politics;

Art.

The opposition between the approaches of empiricism and rationalism in matters of cognition and the scientific method was resolved:

In medieval philosophy;

In the philosophy of modern times;

German classical philosophy;

Philosophies of empirio-criticism.

? Which of these philosophers demanded to put the principle of evidence in the basis of philosophical thinking:

Descartes;

Leibniz.

? The philosophy of modern times can be characterized primarily as:

Philosophy of morality;

Philosophy of science;

Philosophy of Religion;

Philosophy of law.

? A thinker who considered the intuition of the mind to be the highest form of intellectual knowledge:

Descartes;

Spinoza;

Leibniz.

? A philosopher who argued that there are many substances and that they are all spiritual:

Leibniz;

Spinoza.

Which of the following points of view expresses the position of extreme rationalism:

! “There is nothing in the mind that was not previously in the senses” (D. Locke);

!+ “There is nothing in the mind that was not previously in the senses, except for the mind itself” (Leibniz);

! “All our knowledge begins with feelings, then goes to the mind and ends in the mind ...” (I. Kant).

The position that reflects the essence of the method of "induction" according to F. Bacon:

Look for facts that not only confirm a certain conclusion, but also refute it, i.e. enumeration and exclusion;

List all objects of a given class of phenomena and discover their inherent property (enumeration rule);

Based on the observance of a finite number of facts, a general conclusion is made regarding the entire class of these phenomena (the rule of inference by analogy).

Representative of European philosophy of the 17th century, author of the doctrine "On Innate Ideas":

T. Hobbes;

R. Descartes;

B. Spinoza.

? The New Age is characterized by:

Active activity of the church;

Formation and design of natural sciences;

The rise of art.

? The main problem for the philosophy of modern times was:

Method of knowledge;

Human;

Society.

? Empiricism is characterized by the recognition of the main source of knowledge:

intuition.

? Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz adhered to the position:

Empiricism;

rationalism;

sensationalism;

Skepticism.

? The essence of the "doctrine of idols" by F. Bacon is:

In the analysis of pagan beliefs;

In a critical attitude to traditions and customs;

In identifying and eliminating prejudices that impede the comprehension of the truth;

In opposition to myth-making and religion.

? There is nothing in knowledge that was not previously contained in sensations - this is the motto:

Rationalists;

empiricists-sensualists;

nominalists;

T. Hobbes;

G. Leibniz;

R. Descartes.

A concept that cannot serve as a characteristic of the teachings of B. Spinoza on substance:

Rationalism;

Pantheism;

Dualism.

? In the theory of knowledge T. Hobbes:

Rationalist;

Empiricist;

Skeptic;

Agnostic.

R. Descartes;

B. Spinoza;

G. Leibniz.

Collins;

T. Hobbes;

F. Bacon;

T. Hobbes;

R. Descartes;

B. Spinoza.

68. The key concept of Leibniz's philosophical system:

Matter;

Monad.

The philosopher of the New Age, who considered it obvious that at its birth the human soul presents a “blank slate”:

Spinoza;

According to Spinoza, that which needs nothing but itself to exist is called:

Substance;

Modus.

? A philosopher who recognized two substances as the basis of the world (dualism):

Descartes;

Spinoza;

Leibniz;

? Which of the philosophers of the New Age declared the concepts of "substance", "matter" false:

Berkeley;

Spinoza;

Leibniz;

? "A thing is nothing but the totality of our sensations." To which philosophical direction does this judgment by D. Berkeley belong:

Objective idealism;

Anthropological materialism;

Materialism;

subjective idealism.

? “Philosophy should be a system like a tree. The root of this tree is metaphysics (a philosophical discipline about the origins of everything that exists), the trunk is physics, and the branches and crown are other sciences, the main of which are medicine, mechanics and ethics. This original classification was proposed by:

G. Hobbes;

R. Descartes;

B. Spinoza.

According to Descartes, half of his philosophy boiled down to the following provisions (an erroneous version):

In the search for truth, one should be guided only by reason. No authority, no customs, no intuition, no feelings can be trusted;

It is necessary to reject all previous knowledge and skills, and put in their place newly acquired or old, but tested by reason;

Knowledge can only be gained from experience;

Truth can only be found by having an effective method.

A thinker who, already in his youthful writings, formulated the main philosophical question for himself: is true human happiness possible, and if so, what does it consist of and how to achieve it?

Spinoza;

Leibniz.

? The ideas of the Enlightenment were widely spread in Europe (not a suitable option):

France;

Germany;

Portugal.

? The main slogan of the enlighteners was:

Justice and equality;

Reason and will;

Science and progress;

Faith and tolerance.

? Prominent representatives of the English Enlightenment are:

J. Locke;

T. Hobbes;

F. Bacon;

Spinoza.

? The ideology of the Enlightenment reflected the mindset:

working class;

the bourgeoisie;

Peasantry;

Third estate.

? J. Locke developed the principles:

civil society;

natural law;

social contract;

class struggle.

Which of the thinkers of the Enlightenment is considered the founder of the "geographic school" in sociology, according to which climate, soil, landscape determine the spirit of peoples and the nature of social order:

Voltaire;

D.Toland;

I. Holbach;

C. Montesquieu.

The French philosopher-enlightener, who, along with the existence of God, also recognized the immortal soul:

Holbach;

Voltaire;

According to Montaigne, the mind that claims (pretends) for much is the pitiful mind of the most arrogant creature. This is typical for:

Agnosticism;

rationalism;

Skepticism;

Sensationalism.

Philosopher-educator who argued: "If God did not exist, he would have to be invented":

Voltaire;

Montesquieu;

Holbach;

Helvetius.

He begins his treatise "On the Social Contract" with the words: "Man is born free, and yet everywhere he is in chains":

Helvetius;

Montesquieu;

The first law of natural law, Hobbes proclaimed:

War of all against all;

Equality of all;

The principle of justice;

class cooperation.

? A position that is not characteristic of French materialism of the eighteenth century:

The fight against religious beliefs and the creation of a system of atheistic worldview;

The idea of restructuring the life of society on the basis of reason and the wide dissemination of practically useful knowledge;

The belief that a person is good by nature, and society and education can strengthen or weaken this natural moral cohesion;

Recognition of the consistency of reason with the foundations of religious faith, substantiation of the possibility of proving God.

? Which of the ideas was unifying for the philosophers of the Enlightenment:

The idea of reorganizing life on a reasonable basis;

The idea of exploring outer space;

The idea of creating separate nation-states;

The idea of class struggle.

? J. Lametrie, D. Diderot, Helvetius, Holbach - representatives:

medieval philosophy;

French materialism;

Marxism;

German classical philosophy.

Religious and philosophical view, according to which God, having created the world, does not take any part in it and does not interfere in the natural course of its events:

Pantheism;

Dualism;

? A philosopher who distinguished between primary (length, movement ...) and secondary (color, smell, sound ...) qualities of things:

Spinoza;

Leibniz;

F. Bacon.

A physician-philosopher who recognized the objective existence of a higher rational being - God, but only as an impersonal root cause of the world:

Criticizing the teachings of Descartes on innate ideas, he argued in his work “On the Human Mind” that the soul of a child is like a “blank slate”:

Spinoza;

Leibniz;

French materialist philosopher, doctor by profession, author of the work "Man - Machine", burned at the request of the clergy.:

Montaigne;

Helvetius;

Lametrie.

French philosopher, educator and physician, far ahead of Lamarck with his assumptions about the hereditary transmission of acquired individual abilities:

Lametrie;

Cabanis;

Helvetius;

French educator who shared Locke's views on primary and secondary qualities:

Lametrie;

Voltaire;

Holbach;

? Representative of the French Enlightenment, who considered the republic to be the best type of state:

Voltaire;

Helvetius;

Holbach.

The French Enlightener, who defended the idea of the materiality of the world, of a single uncreated matter:

Holbach;

Montaigne;

French thinker of the 18th century, who adhered to sensationalism in the theory of knowledge, although he recognized the innateness of moral ideas:

Helvetius;

Montaigne;

Lametrie.

Voltaire viewed history as:

Manifestation of the will of God;

A collection of random facts;

Creativity of the people themselves;

Activities of great personalities.

The Age of Enlightenment is characterized by:

rationalism;

Irrationalism;

Not………lizma;

Agnosticism.

The representative of the Enlightenment, who in his work "Man-machine" proved that people are skillfully built mechanisms and called for studying a person, relying only on the mechanics of his body:

J. Toland;

F. Voltaire;

J. Lametrie;

I. Herder.

? Indicate the names of the figures of the Renaissance, whose field of activity includes science:

Dante Alighieri;

J. Boccaccio;

J. Bruno;

G. Galileo;

N. Copernicus.

The idea of abolishing private property was put forward by:

Thomas More;

Michel Montaigne;

Nicolo Machiavelli;

All specified.

Humanists have criticized:

Works of the "fathers of the church";

Patristika;

The teaching of Thomism;

Christian doctrine in general.

What way of knowledge, according to F. Bacon, is true?

! "spider";

! "mole";

! "ant";

!+ "bees".

? "Clean slate" J. Locke called:

Human body;

human soul;

Cosmic mind;

Society.

The French educator who had the greatest influence on the development of public consciousness in Russia:

Montesquieu;

Voltaire;

According to Locke, human freedom:

Absolute and not limited by anyone;

Limited by the freedom of other people;

Relative, depends on the conditions of human life;

Limited by the power of the state;

Regulated by one's own conscience.

The teachings of the French materialists

The teaching of the French materialists on the internal activity of matter, on the general character of motion, was a progressive achievement of philosophy in the 18th century. However, these views bear the stamp of a mechanism. The most striking example of a mechanism is the views of the French philosopher La Mettrie (1709-1751), which he expounded in an essay with the characteristic title "Man is a machine". In this work, La Mettrie argued that people are skillfully built mechanisms and called for studying a person, relying only on the mechanics of his body. At the same time, he believed that the study of the mechanics of the body would automatically lead to the disclosure of the essence of human sensual and mental activity. Holbach states that it is possible to explain physical and spiritual phenomena, habits with the help of a pure mechanism. Nothing in the world happens without a reason. Nature is an immense chain of causes and effects, continuously flowing from each other. Movement and change in the world, according to the views of the materialists of this era, is not a constant generation of the new, that is, not development in the proper sense, but some kind of eternal cycle - a consistent increase and decrease, the emergence and destruction, creation and destruction. Everything that happens in the world is subject to the principle of continuity. There are no jumps in nature. An uninterrupted, constant and indestructible chain of causes and effects subordinates everything that happens in nature to universal necessity. Necessity, understood absolutely and mechanically, develops into the idea of the predestination of everything that happens, into fatalism. The materialistic solution of the worldview question about the relationship of consciousness to matter, led to a sensual interpretation of the cognitive process. The source of all knowledge was considered to be sensations generated in a person by the impact of material objects on his sense organs. Without sensations, without feelings, they believed, nothing is inaccessible to our knowledge. The main organ of knowledge is the brain. A person feels through peripheral nerves connecting in the brain.

Sensationalism of the materialists of the 18th century. The essence of reality, from their point of view, can only be known by reason. Sensory direct knowledge is only the first step on this path. The recognition of the similarity of the world and human life activity also predetermines the epistemological optimism of materialism in the 18th century. Its representatives are convinced of the limitlessness of human cognitive capabilities.

The teaching of the French materialists on the internal activity of matter, on the universal character of motion, was a progressive achievement of the philosophical thought of the eighteenth century. However, these views bear the stamp of mechanism. In the XVIII century. chemistry and biology were still in their infancy, and therefore mechanics continued to be the basis of the general worldview. Laws of mechanics solids, the laws of gravitation, the materialists of the Enlightenment, raised to the rank of universal and argued that biological and social phenomena develop according to the same laws. The most striking example of mechanism is the views of the French philosopher Julien de La Mettrie (1709-1751), set forth by him in an essay with the characteristic title "Man is a machine." In this work, La Mettrie argued that people are skillfully built mechanisms and called for studying a person, relying only on the mechanics of his body. At the same time, he believed that the study of the mechanics of the body would automatically lead to the disclosure of the essence of human sensual and mental activity.

The most generalized and systematic mechanistic worldview of the materialism of the Enlightenment is expressed in the work of P. Holbach "The System of Nature". Holbach explicitly states that we can explain physical and spiritual phenomena, habits, with the help of pure mechanism. Nothing in the world happens without a reason. Every cause produces some effect; there can be no effect without a cause. The effect, once having arisen, itself becomes a cause, giving rise to new phenomena. Nature is an immense chain of causes and effects, continuously flowing from each other. The general movement in nature gives rise to the movement of individual bodies and parts of the body, and the latter, in turn, supports the movement of the whole. This is how the order of the world is formed.

It is easy to see that the so-called universal laws of the world are absolutizable laws of solid mechanics. “According to these laws,” Holbach wrote, “heavy bodies fall, light ones rise, similar substances are attracted, all beings strive for self-preservation, a person loves himself and strives for what is beneficial to him, as soon as he knows this, and has an aversion to that might be harmful to him. Movement and change in the world, according to the views of the materialists of this era, is not a constant generation of the new, that is, not development in the proper sense, but some kind of eternal cycle - a consistent increase and decrease, the emergence and destruction, creation and destruction. Everything that happens in the world is subject to the principle of continuity. There are no jumps in nature.

This view, directed against theological ideas about the free creation of God and miracles, was based on the recognition of a universal and immutable material conditionality. An uninterrupted, constant and indestructible chain of causes and effects subordinates everything that happens in nature to universal necessity. Necessity, understood absolutely and mechanically, develops into the idea of the predestination of everything that happens, into fatalism. As a conclusion, this implies the denial of chance in nature and freedom and human behavior. “We,” wrote Holbach, “called random phenomena, the causes of which are unknown to us and which, due to our ignorance and inexperience, we cannot foresee. We ascribe to chance all phenomena when we do not see their necessary connection with the corresponding causes ”(Golbach P. Selected philosopher, past. In 2 vols. T. 1.-M., 1963-S. 428).

Fatalism, the belief in the predestination of everything that exists, contrary to the general trend of the philosophy of the Enlightenment, led to the conclusion that everything that exists is predetermined, to the passive submission of a person to everything that happens in the reality around him.

The materialistic solution of the worldview question about the relation of consciousness to matter, led to a sensationalistic interpretation of the cognitive process. The materialists considered the sensations generated in a person by the influence of material objects on his sense organs to be the source of all knowledge. Without sensations, without feelings, they believed, nothing is available to our knowledge. The main body of knowledge of reality is the human brain. D. Diderot compares the brain with a sensitive and living wax, capable of taking on all kinds of forms, imprinting on itself the impact of external objects. La Mettrie, on the other hand, wrote about the “brain screen”, on which, as from a magic lantern, objects imprinted in the eye are reflected. Man, according to the views of the materialists, feels through the peripheral nerves that connect in the brain. At the same time, experience shows, Holbach emphasizes, that those parts of the body in which communication with the brain is interrupted lose the ability to feel. If there is any disturbance in the brain itself, then the person either feels imperfectly or completely ceases to feel. Thus, sensations take place when the human brain can distinguish between the effects produced on the sense organs.

Sensationalism of the 18th century materialists. is not in conflict with the general rationalist philosophy of the Enlightenment. The essence of reality, from their point of view, can only be known by reason. Sensory direct knowledge is only the first step on this path. “The mind tends to observe, to generalize its observations and draw conclusions from them,” wrote Helvetius in his treatise On the Mind. Helvetia reduces all operations of the human mind to the use of the ability to compare. He believed that this ability alone was sufficient for the knowledge of nature.

The recognition of the similarity of the world and human life activity also predetermines the epistemological optimism of eighteenth-century materialism. Its representatives are convinced of the unlimited cognitive possibilities of a person. There is nothing that people could not understand, says Helvetius. What for our grandfathers was an amazing, miraculous and supernatural fact, becomes for us a simple and natural fact, the mechanism and causes of which, we know, are echoed by Holbach. Thus, the paternalists of the 18th century, despite some nuances, on the whole, share the main principles of the philosophy of their era.

But in a specific interpretation of the structure of this world, representatives of different worldview orientations find different approaches. Idealistic rationalism mystifies the rational aspect of man's relationship with the world and seeks to prove that the rational, rational exists outside and independently of human activity and its objectifications. In these teachings, the mind as a specific, essential characteristic of a person is separated from its owner, then it is endowed with an independent existence, that is, it is objectified. As a result, an image of a substance is obtained, in its main characteristics similar to human activity, in which the goal and the means, the result and the action, the realization and the intention are inextricably linked.

The representatives materialistic rationalism the substantial, law-like structure of the world is associated with the inherent properties of matter. “The Universe,” Holbach writes, “is a colossal combination of everything that exists, everywhere it shows us matter and movement ...”, and further - “nature exists by itself, acts by virtue of its own energies and can never be destroyed (Holbach P. Selected philosopher-product. In 2 vols. T. 1. - M., 1963. - S. 88, 504). The eternal spatio-temporal existence of matter and its continuous movement are for the French materialists of the XVIII century. an undeniable fact.

Mechanistic materialism and sensationalism in the philosophy of the Enlightenment

The teaching of the French materialists on the internal activity of matter, on the general character of motion, was a progressive achievement of the philosophical thought of the eighteenth century. However, these views bear the stamp of mechanism. In the XVIII century. chemistry and biology were still in their infancy, and therefore mechanics continued to be the basis of the general worldview. The laws of mechanics of solid bodies, the laws of gravitation, the materialists of the Enlightenment elevated to the rank of universal and argued that biological and social phenomena develop according to the same laws. The most striking example of mechanism is the views of the French philosopher Julien de La Mettrie(1709 -1751), set out by him in an essay with a characteristic title "Man is a machine". In this work, La Mettrie argued that people are skillfully built mechanisms and called for studying a person, relying only on the mechanics of his body. At the same time, he believed that the study of the mechanics of the body would automatically lead to the disclosure of the essence of human sensual and mental activity.

The most generalized and systematic mechanistic worldview of Enlightenment materialism is expressed in the work P. Holbach "The System of Nature". Holbach explicitly states that we can explain physical and spiritual phenomena, habits, with the help of pure mechanism. Nothing in the world happens without a reason. Every cause produces some effect; there can be no effect without a cause. The effect, once having arisen, itself becomes a cause, giving rise to new phenomena. Nature is an immense chain of causes and effects, continuously flowing from each other. The general movement in nature gives rise to the movement of individual bodies and parts of the body, and the latter, in turn, supports the movement of the whole. This is how the order of the world is formed.

It is easy to see that the so-called universal laws of the world are absolutizable laws of solid mechanics. “According to these laws,” Holbach wrote, “heavy bodies fall, light ones rise, similar substances are attracted, all beings strive for self-preservation, a person loves himself and strives for what is beneficial to him, as soon as he knows this, and has an aversion to that yomset be harmful to him.” Movement and change in the world, according to the views of the materialists of this era, is not a constant generation of the new, that is, not development in the proper sense, but some eternal ^ angle - a consistent increase and decrease, emergence and destruction, creation and destruction. Everything that happens in mi-R 6 is subject to the principle of continuity. There are no jumps in nature.

This view, directed against theological ideas about the free creation of God and miracles, was based on signs of universal and immutable material conditioning. An uninterrupted, constant and indestructible chain of causes and effects, under, repair everything that happens in nature to universal necessity. Necessity, understood absolutely and mechanically, develops into the idea of the predestination of everything that happens, into fatalism. Katz conclusion, hence the denial of randomness in nature and freedom and human behavior. “We,” wrote Holbach, “called random phenomena, the causes of which are unknown to us and which, due to our ignorance and inexperience, we cannot foresee. We attribute to chance all phenomena when we do not see them necessary connection with the corresponding reasons" (Holbach P. Elected philosopher, about. Izv. In 2 vols. T. 1. - M "1963 - S. 428).

Materialistic solution of the worldview question about the relation of consciousness to matter, led to a sensationalistic interpretation of the cognitive process. The materialists considered the sensations generated in a person by the influence of material objects on his sense organs to be the source of all knowledge. Without sensations, without feelings, they believed, nothing is available to our knowledge. The main body of knowledge of reality is the human brain. D. Diderot compares the brain with a sensitive and living wax, capable of taking on all kinds of forms, imprinting on itself the impact of external objects. La Mettrie, on the other hand, wrote about the “brain screen”, on which, as from a magic lantern, objects imprinted in the eye are reflected. Man, according to the views of the materialists, feels through the peripheral nerves that connect in the brain. At the same time, experience shows, Holbach emphasizes, that those parts of the body in which communication with the brain is interrupted lose the ability to feel. If there is any disturbance in the brain itself, then the person either feels imperfectly or completely ceases to feel. Thus, sensations take place when the human brain can distinguish between the effects produced on the sense organs.

Sensationalism of the 18th century materialists. is not in conflict with the general rationalist philosophy of the Enlightenment. The essence of reality, from their point of view, can only be known by reason. Sensory direct knowledge is only the first step on this path. “It is natural for the mind to observe, generalize its observations and draw conclusions from them,” wrote Helvetius in his treatise "About the Mind". Helvetius reduces all operations of the human mind to the use of the ability to compare. He believed that this ability alone was sufficient for the knowledge of nature.

Recognition of the similarity of the world and human life activity also predetermines the epistemological optimism of materialism in the 3rd 8th century. Its representatives are convinced of the limitlessness of human cognitive capabilities. There is nothing that people "I could not understand," Helvetius declares. What for our grandfathers was an amazing, wonderful and supernatural fact, chanovtsya For us, a simple and natural fact, the mechanism and causes of which, we know, is echoed by Holbach. Thus, the materialists of the 18th century, in spite of some nuances, on the whole, share the basic tenets of the philosophy of their era.

The evolution of British empiricism in the late 17th and mid-18th centuries:

D. Locke, D. Berkeley, D. Hume

I. D. Locke's theory of knowledge

II. 2/ Subjective idealism. D. Berkeley

III. 3/ D. Hume's skepticism

The foundations of British empiricism were formulated by Francis Bacon. His doctrine of the experiential source of human knowledge, as well as the inductive method he developed, were considered;

earlier, in the process of comparing the various methodological approaches of rationalism and empiricism. The time has come to study in more detail the development of F. Bacon's views in the context of developing the theory of knowledge based on the principles of empiricism.

D. Locke's theory of knowledge The first, in the most general form, the task of studying the origin, reliability and scope of human knowledge was set by an English philosopher, a doctor by education and a politician by the nature of his practical activity, John Locke(1632-1704). In his main philosophical work "Experiment on the human mind" (1690) D. Locke set out to comprehensively substantiate the position on the experimental origin of all human knowledge. The first question that he had to solve on the way to the implementation of his plan was to express his attitude to the widespread theory of "innate ideas". D. Locke categorically rejects the possibility of the existence of such ideas.

Proponents of the theory of "innate ideas" usually referred to the general agreement of people on certain issues. “However,” D. Locke wrote, “an argument with reference to universal agreement, which is used to prove the existence of innate principles, rather proves that they do not exist: for there are no principles that would be recognized by all mankind” (Locke D. Selected. philosopher. prod. T.I.-M., 1960.-S. 76). To prove this position, D. Locke gives numerous examples from his medical practice, data from ethnographic observations. Certain ideas, according to the English thinker, are approved by people not because of their innateness, but because of their usefulness. So, for example, the idea of God and worship of God is not innate, since there are atheists in the world who deny the existence of God, as well as entire nations in which one cannot find concepts of either God or religion. The emergence and spread of these ideas is by no means explained by their innateness, but by the influence of upbringing, education, common sense and constant interest in the name of God.

Since D. Locke rejected the existence of innate ideas, the following question naturally arose: what is the source of these ideas? Answering this question, the English philosopher clearly formulates the initial principle of empiricism. “All our knowledge is based on experience, from it, in the end, our observation comes, directed either at external objects, or at the internal actions of our soul, perceived and reflected by ourselves, deliver to our mind all the material of thinking” (Toii. same. - From 128).

As can be seen from the statement of D. Locke, he distinguishes between two types of experience: outside experience, consisting of a set of definitions, and inner experience, formed from the mind's observations of its inner workings. The source of the external is the objective material world, which affects the human senses and causes sensations. On this basis, the English thinker argues, simple ideas arise in us that have a real (ie, objective) content, consistent with the things themselves.

External experience or reflection- this is the activity of our mind when it is processing the acquired ideas. Explaining his understanding of internal experience or reflection, D. Locke emphasizes the idea that "every person has this source of ideas entirely within himself", that he "has nothing to do with external objects, and although this source is not a feeling ..., ... nevertheless, it is very similar to it and can be quite accurately called an inner feeling "(There same. - S.129). This characteristic of inner experience is intended to emphasize the great importance of the activity of the mind, reflection. But still, justifying the main position of empiricism, D. Locke repeatedly emphasized that the activity of the mind, which becomes the subject of reflection, proceeds only on the basis of sensory data that arise in a person before the ideas of reflection. And in general, the soul cannot think before the senses provide it with ideas for thinking.

However, when receiving ideas of reflection, our mind is not passive, but active. He performs certain actions of his own by which, from simple ideas as the material and foundation for the rest, others are built. Thanks to this ability, the mind has more opportunity to diversify and reduce the objects of its thinking indefinitely. longer than that what sensations or reflection delivered to him. At the same time, D. Locke clearly indicates that the mind cannot go beyond those primary ideas that are formed on the basis of sensations. External experience is the basis, the base of all subsequent knowledge.

According to the methods of formation and formation of the whole idea, according to Locke, they are divided into simple and complex. Simple Ideas contain monotonous ideas and perceptions and do not break up into any constituent elements. Locke refers to simple ideas as ideas of space, form, rest, movement, light, etc. In terms of content, simple ideas, in turn, are divided into two groups. To the first group, he refers ideas that reflect the primary or original qualities of external objects, which are completely inseparable from these objects, in whatever state they are, and which our senses constantly find in every particle of matter, enough to perceive the volume. Such, for example, are density, extension, form, movement, rest. These qualities act on the sense organs by impetus and give rise in us to simple ideas of solidity, extension, form, movement, rest, or number. Locke claims what only the ideas of the primary qualities of bodies are similar to them and their prototypes really exist in the bodies themselves, that is, the ideas of these qualities accurately reflect the objective properties of these bodies.

To the second group, he includes ideas that reflect secondary qualities, which, in his opinion, are not in the things themselves, but are forces that cause different sensations in us with their primary qualities (i.e. volume, shape, cohesion and movement of imperceptible particles of matter). Locke refers to secondary qualities such qualities of things as color, sound, taste, etc. Thus, the manifestation of secondary qualities is associated by the English thinker not with the objective world itself, but with its perception in the human mind.

complex ideas, According to Locke, they are formed from simple ideas as a result of the self-activity of the mind. D. Locke identifies three main way formation of complex ideas:

1. Combining several simple ideas into one complex idea;

2. Bringing together two ideas, whether simple or complex, and comparing them with each other so as to survey them at once, but not combine them into one;

3. Separation of ideas from all other ideas accompanying them in their actual reality.

In accordance with the nature of education, Locke distinguishes three types of complex ideas according to their content.

1. Ideas modes or "empirical substances". Here it includes ideas that are either dependent on substances(primary bases), or their properties of the latter.

2. Ideas rel about solutions, consisting in considering and comparing one idea with another and bringing to the ideas of the relationship "brother, father" cause and effect, identity and difference, etc.

3. Idea substances , that is, a certain "substrate", "carrier", "support" of simple ideas that do not have independent beings:

The definitions of substance are divided into simple ("man") and collectively (army, people).

For a better understanding of the followers of the teachings of Locke, it is necessary to take a closer look at his concept of substance. As stated earlier, Locke meant substance a substrate, a carrier of a known quality or set of qualities. What is the nature of this substratum: material or spiritual? He recognizes the presence of corporeal and thinking substance. But it does not establish an unambiguous relationship between them. They seem to be side by side, although they do not touch each other.

Of particular interest is also developed by Locke abstraction concept or the theory of formation of the most general concepts (concepts). It is the nature of this theory that makes it possible to define Locke's doctrine of complex ideas as conceptualism.

The problem of abstraction in the history of philosophy was considered, first of all, as the problem of the relationship between the general and the individual in cognition, closely related to the definition of the role of language. In medieval philosophy, this problem was solved from two diametrically opposed positions - nominalism and realism. Nominalists argued that the common is "just a name - nomen(name). In reality, there are only single things. Realists, on the other hand, argued that the general idea exists in reality, and the individual is only a reflection of the real existence of the idea of these things. D. Locke seeks to find a new way to solve this problem based on the theory of knowledge. According to Locke's views, general ideas are formed by abstracting from those simple ideas or features of objects that are common to all objects of a given group. So, for example, if from the complex ideas of specific people Peter, Paul, Ivan, etc. to exclude only that which is special in each of them, and to keep only that which they have in common, and then to denote this common by the word "man", then the abstract idea of "man" will be obtained.

Thus, according to Locke, there are only ideal single things. General ideas are the product of the abstracting activity of the mind. Words that express the general are only signs of general ideas. Locke's conceptualism represents a seriously weakened medieval nominalism by strengthening materialistic tendencies. We have repeatedly emphasized that Locke was an empiricist, but his empiricism was not simplistic. The theory of abstraction shows that Locke attached great importance to the rational form of knowledge. This rationalistic bias is clearly manifested in his doctrine of three kinds of knowledge: intuitive, demonstrative and experimental.

The most reliable kind of knowledge, according to Locke, is intuition. Intuitive knowledge is a clear and distinct perception of the correspondence or inconsistency of two ideas through their direct comparison. In second place after intuition, in terms of reliability, Locke has demonstrative knowledge. In this kind of knowledge, the perception of the correspondence or inconsistency of two ideas is not made directly, but indirectly, through a system of premises and conclusions. The third kind of knowledge sensual or sensitive cognition. This kind of knowledge is limited to the perception of individual objects of the external world. In terms of its reliability, it stands at the lowest level of knowledge and does not achieve clarity and distinctness. Through intuitive knowledge we cognize our being, through demonstrative cognition - the existence of God, through sensitive cognition - the existence of other things.

Subjective idealism D. Berkeley The most intensive development and original interpretation of the ideas of D. Locke were in the works of the English philosopher, Bishop D. Berkeley (1685-1753). Locke's conceptualism was based on the assumption that the general is not only a nomen (a verbal designation created by our mind), but is a mental abstraction of common, repetitive features of things. D. Berkeley, in fact, returned to the position of nominalism. "Everything that exists is singular," he states in his treatise "On the principles of human knowledge" (Berkeley D. Works. - M; 1972. - S. 281). The general exists only as a generalized visual image of the individual. From these positions, Berkeley criticizes Locke's theory of abstraction, which explains the way in which general ideas are formed. abstraction, distraction, according to Berkeley, is impossible because the qualities of objects are inextricably linked in the object. The human mind can consider separately from others only those qualities with which they are united in some object, but without which they can actually exist. Thus, one can imagine a head without a body, a color without movement, a figure without weight, etc., but one cannot imagine a person in general; a man who was neither pale nor swarthy, neither short nor tall. In the same way, Berkeley argues, it is impossible to imagine a triangle in general, that is, a triangle that would be neither greater nor smaller, neither equilateral nor scalene. In other words, there is not and cannot be an abstract idea of a triangle, but there is only an idea of a triangle with certain specific properties. Thus, Locke's "general ideas" acquired from Berkeley the form of sensual visual representations or images of specific objects.

The rationale for this provision is formulated by D. Berkeley the concept of representative (representative) thinking. According to this concept, there are not and cannot be abstract general ideas, but there can be and are particular ideas that are similar ideas of a given kind. So, any particular triangle that replaces or represents all right-angled triangles can be called general, but a triangle in general is absolutely impossible.

Berkeley believed that the erroneous notion that there are abstract general ideas in the soul arises from a misunderstanding of language. A person uses general concepts in his speech and, as a result, it seems to him that he must also have general ideas corresponding to these words. But these general ideas are invented by people to explain that they give common things the same names. If there were no identical names, then it would never occur to anyone to talk about abstract general ideas.

Berkeley's theory of representativeness is based on the confusion of concept with representation, speech with thinking. The concept of a triangle is indeed always associated with specific triangles. But this does not at all exclude the possibility of developing the concept of a triangle on the basis of highlighting its common, recurring, essential features. It should also be recognized as true such a premise that the transition to general abstract ideas is connected with speech, with the word. But being a form of thinking, the word is not identical with thinking. The word serves as a form of objectification of human thought. Therefore, in the dialectical interaction of thinking and speech, the leading role belongs to the content side of this interaction - the process of thinking. By correctly emphasizing that abstractions as such have no objective existence, Berkeley thus tried to exclude from the sphere of cognition such a powerful cognitive tool as the procedure of abstraction.

The pathos of the Berkeleian criticism of the theory of abstraction becomes clear when we are convinced that its main thrust was to free philosophy and science from the deceit of words, the purification of consciousness "from the thin and intricate network of abstract ideas" (Ibid.-S. 168). As "the most abstract and incomprehensible of all ideas," Berkeley considered idea of matter or bodily substance. "The denial of it does not bring any damage to the rest of the human race, which will never notice its absence. The atheist really needs this ghost of an empty name to justify his godlessness, and philosophers will find, perhaps, that they have lost a strong reason for idle talk" (Ibid. - S. 186). Thus, one of the most important reasons why Bishop Berkeley returns to the positions of nominalism is that nominalism allows us to argue that such most general concepts as. matter, bodily substance- it's only names of things existing only in the mind and not in reality. The edifice of Berkeleian idealism is based on this proposition. But the teaching of D. Berkeley in solving the main worldview issue is not just idealism, but subjective idealism. Berkeley argues that the main mistake of philosophers before him was that they sharply contrasted each other with existence in itself and existence in the form of perception. Berkeley's subjective idealism lies primarily in the fact that he seeks to prove that existence as such and existence in perception are identical. "To exist ~ means to be perceived." From this it follows logically that the direct objects of our cognition are not external objects as such, but only our sensations and ideas, and therefore, in the process of cognition, we are not able to perceive anything but our own ideas. “It is obvious to anyone who looks at the objects of human knowledge that they are partly ideas actually imprinted in our sensations, partly ideas perceived through observation of the states and actions of the soul, partly ideas formed with the help of memory and imagination, finally, ideas arising through connection, separation or ... representation of what was originally perceived in one of the above ways," he states in "A Treatise on the Principles of Human Knowledge".

One cannot but agree with Berkeley's opinion that the objects of our knowledge are certain states of our consciousness, and above all, sensations and perceptions. But materialistic epistemology, recognizing that our sensations are direct objects of cognition, assumed at the same time that sensations nevertheless give us knowledge of the external world, which generates these sensations by its influence on our sense organs. Berkeley, defending subjective-idealistic attitudes, argues that the cognizing subject deals only with his own sensations, which not only do not reflect external objects, but actually constitute these objects. "In fact, object and sensation are one and the same and therefore cannot be abstracted from one another" (Ibid. - S. 173). Thus, Berkeley comes to two subjective-idealistic conclusions. First, we know nothing but our sensations. Secondly, the totality of sensations or "collection of ideas" is what is objectively called things. It turns out, according to Berkeley, that things or single products are nothing but modification of our consciousness. So Berkeley turned into a fiction, into a "phantom of consciousness" not only general ideas, such as matter, but also individual things. All sensually perceived objects were declared non-existent outside of human consciousness. The result of the subjective-idealistic theory of knowledge of D. Berkeley was solipsism - a doctrine that makes the existence of the objective world dependent on its perception in the consciousness of the individual "I". So, from his point of view, cherry exists and is a reality only insofar as this individual sees, touches, tastes it. "I see this cherry- wrote Berkeley, - I touch it, I taste it; and I am convinced that nothing can be seen, felt, or tasted, therefore it is real. Eliminate the feeling of softness, moisture, beauty, astringency, and you will destroy the cherry. Since it is not a being distinct from sensations, the cherry, I maintain, is nothing but a combination of sensory impressions or representations perceived by different senses; these representations are combined into one thing (or have one name given to them) by the mind, for each of them is observed accompanied by another.

Such a point of view, if adhered to to the end, leads to the transformation of the world into an illusion of the perceiving subject. D. Berkeley understood the vulnerability of such a position and tried to overcome the extremes of subjectivism. To this end, he was forced to admit the existence "thinking things" or "spirits" the perception of which determines the continuity of the existence of "unthinkable things". For example, when I close my eyes or leave the room, the things that I saw there can exist, but only in the perception of another person. another individual spirit, but as a whole collection of spirits. Therefore, it does not follow from the above principles that bodies are instantly destroyed and created anew or that they do not exist at all in the interval between our perceptions of them. (Ibid. - S. 192-193).

But in this case, the question naturally arises, what about existence before man arose? After all, even according to the teachings of Christianity, of which Bishop Berkeley was an adherent, the real world arose before man. And Berkeley was forced to retreat from his subjectivism and, in fact, to take the position of objective idealism. According to Berkeley, God is the creator of the entire surrounding world and the guarantor of its existence in the mind of the subject. "In three conversations between Hylas and Philonus" he builds the following chain of reasoning. “Sensible things cannot exist otherwise than only in the mind or in the spirit. ... And it is no less clear that these ideas or things perceived by me ... exist independently of my soul ... They must therefore exist in some other Spirit, by whose will they appear to me. ... From all this I conclude that there is a spirit that at any moment causes in me those sensory impressions that I perceive. And from their diversity, order, and peculiarities, I conclude that their creator is unparalleledly wise, mighty, and good.” (Ibid. - S. 302, 305, 306). Thus, the English bishop not only refutes materialism, but, using a subjective-idealistic methodology, builds an original version of the proof of the existence of God. Traditional theology, according to Berkeley, argues as follows: "God exists, therefore he perceives things." One should reason as follows: “Sensible things really exist, and if they really exist, they are necessarily perceived by an infinite spirit, therefore an infinite spirit or God exists” (Ibid. - S. 305).

! "State and Revolution";

! "Sovereign";

! "Science of Logic";

! "Dialectics of Nature".

? Who was the first of the representatives of the Renaissance to come to the conclusion that there are innumerable worlds:

Galileo;

Copernicus;

Rotterdam.

He set fire to the writings of Galen and Avicenna, declaring that he renounced all the old authorities with their errors and delusions:

Paracelsus;

? Outstanding philosopher and eminent mathematician, founder of new European rationalism:

Spinoza;

Leibniz.

? In the 17th century V. Garvey introduced into the practice of scientific research a method called:

vivisection;

induction;

deduction;

Analysis.

? A philosopher who argued that there are many substances and that they are all spiritual:

Leibniz;

Descartes;

Spinoza.

He begins his treatise "On the Social Contract" with the words: "Man is born free, and yet everywhere he is in chains":

Voltaire;

Holbach.

French materialist philosopher, doctor by profession, author of the work "Man - Machine", burned at the request of the clergy:

Montaigne;

Helvetius;

Lametrie.

? The Age of Enlightenment is characterized by:

rationalism;

Irrationalism;

Agnosticism;

Pessimism.

The representative of the Enlightenment, who in his work "Man-machine" proved that people are skillfully built mechanisms and called for studying a person, relying only on the mechanics of his body:

J. Toland;

F. Voltaire;

J. Lametrie;

I. Herder.

? The French educator who had the greatest influence on the development of public consciousness in Russia:

Montesquieu;

Voltaire;

Rousseau.
Topic 5. German classical philosophy - 4 hours.

Historical conditions for the development of philosophical thought in Germany in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Kant is the founder of German classical philosophy:
1. problems of natural philosophy;
2. Kant about the cognitive capabilities of man.
Philosophy of Hegel:
1. the absolute idealism of Hegel;
2. the idea of moral autonomy;
3. features of the philosophy and history of Hegel;
4. dialectics and the principle of the triad.
Feuerbach's philosophy:
1. philosophy about the essence of religion;
2. anthropological materialism;
3. sociological and ethical views.

5. Influence of German classical philosophy on the development of medical science and practice.
L and t er a t u r a:

a) main

b) additional:

Lungina D.A. The doctrine of culture in Kant and Hegel. - Zh. "Questions of Philosophy" No. 1 2010
Terletsky V.M. A priori and spontaneity in the critical philosophy of I. Kant. - Zh. "Questions of Philosophy" No. 12 for 2013

Test questions:

How did I. Kant call his philosophical system?
What does I. Kant's "thing in itself" mean? What is the essence of his agnosticism?
Why did I. Kant call ethics a rigorous theoretical science?
What does the categorical imperative mean?
What is the triad in G. Hegel's system?
What laws of dialectics did Hegel formulate?
What is Hegel's "absolute idea"?
Why is the philosophy of Kant, Fichte, Scheleng, Hegel, Feuerbach called classical?
Explain the essence of Feuerbach's anthropological materialism.
What classification of diseases did Hegel give?

I. Kant about the cognitive capabilities of man.
I. Kant on the autonomy of morality.
Contradiction between Hegel's method and system.
The essence of Feuerbach's anthropological materialism.
L. Feuerbach's concept of religion.
The significance of Hegel's idealistic dialectics for philosophy and science.
Feuerbach on medicine as "the birthplace of materialism".
Questions of medicine in the writings of Hegel.

Tests:

? What is meant by the epithet "pure" that Kant uses in relation to reason?

Free from delusion;

Existing without regard to the subject;

Examined beyond concrete experiential content;

Abstracted from forms of perception.

? What, according to Kant, makes a person free?

Following your nature;

Following a moral duty;

adequate knowledge;

Fulfillment of religious norms.

? Feuerbach argued that the essence of the human "I" is manifested in:

Self-awareness of a person;

His acts of will;

The integrity of his body;

ethical ideas.

? According to Hegel, the first philosophical science should be:

Metaphysics;

Rhetoric;

Biology.

Which of the representatives of German classical philosophy believed that the subject of philosophy coincides with the subject of religion - it is an absolute infinite object:

Schelling;

Feuerbach.

? The main provisions of the so-called. romantic medicine (XIX century) were developed under the influence of:

Kantianism;

Philosophy of Hegel;

Teachings of Marx;

Feuerbach's teachings.

? “Nature itself is that “inner doctor” that is present in every person from birth and therefore is more versed in diseases than a specialist who only gropes for symptoms from the outside. - This situation is typical for:

ancient medicine;

Medicine of the Middle Ages;

Renaissance medicine;

Romantic medicine (XIX century).

? Philosopher who contributed to overcoming the localistic interpretation of the pathological process:

Feuerbach.

moral law;

Law of nature;

The result of the experience;

Faith element.

? The concept that characterizes the philosophy of Hegel:

Catharsis;

Antinomy;

Absolute idea;

? Which of the German philosophers called medicine "the birthplace of materialism":

Schelling;

Feuerbach.

? Which of the characteristics is unacceptable to the philosophy of L. Feuerbach:

Naturalism;

Dialectics;

Materialism;

Anthropologism.

? "Peoples enter history when they organize themselves into states, and each people has the government it deserves." This idea belongs to:

Feuerbach;

? Which of the German philosophers was a representative of romanticism:

Schelling;

Feuerbach;

? Hegel believed that mental illness has:

Spiritual-corporeal nature;

bodily nature;

spiritual nature;

Causeless.

? According to Feuerbach, the philosophy of the future will be:

natural science;

Epistemology;

Axiology;

Anthropology.

Which of the German philosophers owns the statement: "Everything that is real is reasonable, everything that is reasonable is real":

Engels.

? The degree of awareness of what concept is an indicator of the degree of social development in Hegel?:

Democracy;

Freedom;

Technique;

Anarchy.

Topic 6. Marxist philosophy - 4 hours.

Formation of the philosophy of Marxism. The principle of dialectical-materialistic monism in the views on nature, society, thinking.
Anthropology of Marxism.
Social Philosophy of Marxism:
1. the concept of socio-economic formation; basis and superstructure;
2. doctrine of class struggle.
Development of the Marxist theory by G.V. Plekhanov and V.I. Lenin.
Marxist philosophy and modernity. The value of Marxist methodology in the knowledge of socio-cultural phenomena.

L and t er a t u r a:

a) main

1. Alekseev P.V. Philosophy: textbook. M. "Prospect", 2013

2. Moiseev V.I. Philosophy: a textbook for medical students. St. Petersburg, 2011.

3. Khrustalev Yu.M. Philosophy. Textbook, 2013. "GEOTAR-Media", 2013.

b) additional:

Ontology. Texts of Philosophy: Textbook for High Schools. / Ed. - comp. V. Kuznetsov. Moscow: Academic Prospekt; Mir Foundation, 2012.
Asatryan M.V. The Key to the Economic and Socio-Political Mistakes of Marxism. - J. "Questions of Philosophy" No. 7 for 2009
Senderov V.A. Memory of Marxism. - J. "Questions of Philosophy" No. 3 for 2011
Shelike V.F. Unknown Marx and some modern problems. (Part 1). - Zh. "Philosophical Sciences" No. 3 2013
Shelike V.F. Unknown Marx and some modern problems. (Part 1). - J. "Philosophical Sciences" No. 4 2013

Test questions:

Expand the essence of the materialistic understanding of history.
What are the prerequisites for the emergence of Marxist philosophy?
How did K. Marx and F. Engels consider the social essence of man?
What forms of alienation are distinguished by K. Marx?
List the main works of K. Marx and F. Engels.
What characteristic does V.I. Lenin give to imperialism?
What is Neo-Marxism?

Topics for reports and discussions

Marxist philosophy about dialectics as general theory development.
Marxism and Western Philosophy.
The concept of dialectics in Marxist philosophy.
Man as the subject of history.
Lenin's stage in the development of the philosophy of Marxism.
GV Plekhanov as a theorist of Marxism.
Theory and practice of Marxism in the modern world.

Tests:

I. Kant and G. Hegel;

K. Marx and F. Engels;

V.G. Plekhanov and V.I. Lenin;

All specified.

? In the Philosophical-Economic Manuscripts of 1844, Marx raises the issue:

Primary accumulation of capital;

social inequality;

Alienation of labor;

Expropriation of surplus value.

? According to Marx, ideology is:

False consciousness;

Philosophy;

Art.

? The Marxist concept of man comes from:

Hegel's idealistic dialectics and the absolutization of man's speculative relation to the world;

Understanding the essence of man as a set of social relations;

Feuerbach's anthropological materialism with an abstract, biological approach to man;

Religious interpretation of the essence of man.

? Philosophical views Marx is characterized as:

Objective idealism;

Subjective idealism;

Sensationalism;

Dialectical materialism.

? History in the Marxist concept appears as:

Random jumble of events and facts;

Natural-historical process;

The will and actions of individuals;

Divine Providence.

? Leninism is:

The continuation and development of Marxism;

Antipode of Marxism;

The premise of Marxism;

Synonymous with Marxism.

Engels;

Marx and Engels.

? The first Russian theoretician of Marxism was:

Bakunin;

Plekhanov;

Berdyaev.

? Revolutionary violence, according to Marxism, is:

A factor in the progress of society;

A brake on the development of society;

A relic of former societies;

The locomotive of history.

Topic 7. Philosophy of irrationalism ХI10th century – 2 hours

Classical and modern philosophy: continuity and differences. The search for new forms of "practical" philosophy.
Philosophy of life and its varieties:
1. the philosophy of will of A. Schopenhauer;
2. Dilthey: substantiation of the sciences of the spirit. Vitalism and psychologism;
3. Bergson: creative evolution and vital impulse.
Philosophical features of F. Nishce.

L and t er a t u r a:

a) main

1. Alekseev P.V. Philosophy: textbook. M. "Prospect", 2013

2. Moiseev V.I. Philosophy: a textbook for medical students. St. Petersburg, 2011.

3. Khrustalev Yu.M. Philosophy. Textbook, 2013. "GEOTAR-Media", 2013.

b) additional:

Ontology. Texts of Philosophy: Textbook for High Schools. / Ed. - comp. V. Kuznetsov. Moscow: Academic Prospekt; Mir Foundation, 2012.
Marcel G. Nietzsche: man in the face of the death of God. - Zh. "Philosophical Sciences" No. 1 2012.
Chikin A.A. Arthur Schopenhauer and the discovery of the body as a philosophical problem. - Zh. "Philosophical Sciences" No. 5 2013.

Test questions:

What ideas were used by the ideologists of fascism?
What does A. Schopenhauer mean by will?
What are the reasons for the emergence of irrational philosophy?
List the main directions of non-classical philosophy.
What is voluntarism?
Why is Schopenhauer's teaching characterized as pessimistic?

Topics for reports and discussions

Schopenhauer on the freedom of the individual.
The problem of truth in pragmatism.
The problem of personality in irrationalism.
Nietzsche's Idea of the Superman in the Spiritual Life and Social Practice of the 20th Century
General and particular in the teachings of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche.
Rethinking the subject of philosophy in positivism.

Topic 8. Domestic philosophy. (Russian philosophy. Philosophical thought in Dagestan) - 6 hours.

The main stages in the development of Russian philosophy:
1. historical features of the development of Russian civilization;
2. philosophical views of M. Lomonosov and Radishchev. A brief description of.
Philosophy of revolutionary democracy.
Russian religious-idealistic philosophy (L. Tolstoy, Vl. Soloviev, N. Berdyaev).
Philosophical ideas of Russian naturalists (I. Sechenov, N. Pirogov, I. Mechnikov).
Philosophy of Russian cosmism.
The assertion of Islam, Arab-Muslim culture and philosophy in Dagestan:
1. philosophical thought in the 11th-18th centuries. Scientific and philosophical schools;
2. philosophical legacy of Kazem-Bek;
3. philosophical views of the Dagestan enlighteners (Gasan Alkadari, Gasan Guzunov and Ali Kayaev).
Sufi philosophy and its varieties in Dagestan:
1. the spread of Sufism in Dagestan (Muhammad b. Musa ad-Derbendi);
2. Tariqat muridism is a Caucasian variety of Sufism;
3. the views of the main ideologists of Tariqat muridism in Dagestan (Muhammad from Yaraga, Jamaludin from Kazikumukh, Abdurakhman-Haji from Sogratl, etc.);

L and t er a t u r a:

a) main

1. Alekseev P.V. Philosophy: textbook. M. "Prospect", 2013

2. Moiseev V.I. Philosophy: a textbook for medical students. St. Petersburg, 2011.

3. Khrustalev Yu.M. Philosophy. Textbook, 2013. "GEOTAR-Media", 2013.

b) additional:

Ontology. Texts of Philosophy: Textbook for High Schools. / Ed. - comp. V. Kuznetsov. Moscow: Academic Prospekt; Mir Foundation, 2012.
Mikhailov I.F. The Legacy of Soviet "Critical Marxism" in the Context of the Problem of Thinking. - J. "Questions of Philosophy" No. 5 for 2011.
Melih Yu.B., Khoruzhy S.S. Karsavin's philosophy silver age and in our days. - J. "Questions of Philosophy" No. 4 for 2013.
Samsonova T.N. Formation of a civic culture in modern Russia. - Zh. "Philosophical Sciences" No. 1 for 2013.
Liseev I.K. Philosophical ideas of V.I. Vernadsky and the modern scientific picture of the world (to the 150th anniversary of V.I. Vernadsky).

Test questions:

What is the specificity of Russian philosophy?
How is the problem of personality considered in the philosophy of Russian writers?
List the main representatives of Russian idealistic philosophy.
What is the essence of the "metaphysics of unity" in the philosophy of V. Solovyov?
What are the main problems that dominated the work of N. Berdyaev.
List the representatives of "Russian cosmism".
What was the manifestation of the rationalism of the representatives of the scientific and philosophical school of Muhammad from Kudutl?
Tell us about the philosophical legacy of Kazem-Bek.
What is the specificity of the philosophical views of Gasan Alkadari?
What varieties of Sufism became widespread in Dagestan in the 19th-early 20th centuries?
What is common between Sufism and Tariqat Muridism?

Topics for reports and discussions

The historical fate of philosophy in Russia.
Intuition as a philosophical problem in Russian philosophy.
A. Herzen on the relationship between philosophy and natural science.
Anthropological principle of N.G. Chernyshevsky's philosophy.
Enlightenment philosophy in Russia.
Philosophical ideas in Russian medicine (N.I. Pirogov, I.M. Sechenov and others).
The ideological origins of the philosophical thought of Dagestan.
Scientific and philosophical schools of Dagestan thinkers.
The role of Arab-Muslim philosophy in the spiritual development of Dagestan.
Islam and its role in shaping the worldviews of Dagestan thinkers.
The spread of Sufism in Dagestan.
The main ideologists of Tariqat Muridism in Dagestan and their relationship.
Ideas of Russian cosmism in the context of globalization.

Tests:

? Characteristic features of original Russian philosophy:

Comprehension of objective reality;

Critical reflection on Russian reality;

Cosmism;

All definitions are correct.

? At the heart of the philosophy of the Slavophils is the idea:

Worship everything western;

Love for the Slavic nation;

The identity of Russia's development;

The inevitability of Russia's development along the Western path.

? Westerners include:

A.I. Herzen;

P.Ya. Chaadaev;

A.S. Khomyakov;

K. Aksakov.

? Which of the Russian philosophers could say that "freedom is more primary than being"?

Pisarev;

Lossky;

Florensky;

Bakunin;

Berdyaev.

? The outstanding achievement of M.V. Lomonosov is:

Proof of the indestructibility of matter and motion;

Creation of the cell theory;

Discovery of the electromagnetic field;

Chaadaev;

Radishchev;

Lomonosov;

Belinsky;

Chernyshevsky.

The representative of Russian revolutionary democrats, who defined illness as a violation of the correct relationship between the particles that make up our body:

Dobrolyubov;

Chernyshevsky;

Belinsky.

? F. Dostoevsky was a representative of:

revolutionary democracy;

Westernism;

Religious populism;

Slavophilism.

? The works "Philosophy of Freedom" and "The Meaning of Creativity" became decisive in the spiritual choice of the Russian philosopher:

Bulgakov;

Shestov;

Berdyaev;

Solovyov.

? Central to Solovyov's teaching is the idea:

Unity;

States;

Society.

? According to Berdyaev, God is omnipotent over the world he created, but has no power over:

Human;

Society;

State;

freedom;

Man and freedom.

? Representatives of Russian cosmism:

Radishchev;

Belinsky;

Tsiolkovsky;

Chernyshevsky;

Chizhevsky.

?The “Teaching about God-manhood” belongs to:

Shestov;

Solovyov;

Bulgakov;

Berdyaev.

? Vernadsky is a representative of:

Russian revolutionary democracy;

Slavophilism;

Cosmism;

I.Pavlov;

I. Sechenov;

S. Botkin;

N. Pirogov.

significant role in the distribution educational ideas in Dagestan, she played "The Newspaper of Dagestan" ("Jaridatu Dagestan"), the editor of which was:

G. Guzunov;

A. Kayaev;

N. Batyrmurzaev;

G. Alkadari.

? Public and political figure of Dagestan, deputyIII State Duma(1907-1912), who defended the principle of freedom of conscience as "the right of a person to dispose of his inner, spiritual world":

B. Dalgat;

N. Batyrmurzaev;

G. Guzunov;

I. Gaidarov.

? The beginning of Tariqat muridism in Dagestan was laid:

J. Kazikumukhsky;

M. Yaragsky;

A.Sogratlinsky.

? According to N. Berdyaev, the appointment of a person in:

Creativity;

Wisdom;