Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution
higher professional education
"Orenburg State University"
Faculty of Geology and Geography
Department of Ecology and Nature Management
The spread of the Greco-Byzantine spiritual traditions in Russia. Lives of the Saints and Introduction to Ancient Knowledge
Work manager
Ph.D., associate professor E.V. Grivko
Executor
student of group 15TB (ba) -1
A.V. Mazina
Orenburg 2015
Relevance
Pre-Cyrillic writing and knowledge of the Slavs
Spread of Greco-Byzantine cultural and scientific traditions
Christianization of Rus: the development of everyday and spiritual culture
Widespread literacy in the urban environment in the 11th-12th centuries: birch bark letters and graffiti
Mathematical, astronomical and geographical knowledge in Ancient Russia
The first parish schools under Vladimir I and Yaroslav the Wise
Practical application of knowledge in crafts and construction
Sources of
Relevance
Byzantium is an original cultural integrity (330-1453), the first Christian empire. Byzantium was located at the junction of three continents: Europe, Asia and Africa. Its territory included the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrenaica, part of Mesopotamia and Armenia, the island of Cyprus, Crete, strongholds in the Crimea (Chersonesos), in the Caucasus (in Georgia), and some regions of Arabia. The Mediterranean was an inland lake of Byzantium.
Byzantium was a multinational empire, motley in ethnic composition of the population, which consisted of Syrians, Copts, Thracians, Illyrians, Armenians, Georgians, Arabs, Jews, Greeks, Romans. Non-Greeks and non-Romans have played a major role since the fall of the Western Roman Empire. There was no physical continuity between the ancient and medieval peoples at all. The immigration of barbarians into the empire is an essential feature that separates antiquity from the Middle Ages. The constant and abundant replenishment of the provinces of the empire with new peoples poured a lot of new blood into the remnants of the old population, contributed to a gradual change in the very physical type of the ancient peoples.
In the early Middle Ages, the Byzantine Empire, the heir and successor of Greek culture and the state-legal organization of the Roman Empire, was the most cultured, strongest and most economically developed European state. It is quite natural that its influence was decisive over a fairly large segment of Russian history.
Since ancient times, the Slavs traded with Byzantium, using the great waterway of the Magi - the Dnieper - the so-called "from the Varangians to the Greeks." They took out honey, furs, wax, slaves, and from Byzantium they brought luxury goods, art, household goods, fabrics, and with the advent of writing - and books. On this way, numerous Russian trading cities emerged: Kiev, Chernigov, Smolensk, Novgorod Veliky, Pskov and others. Simultaneously, the Russian princes made military campaigns against Constantinople (Constantinople), which ended with the signing of peace treaties. So, in 907, the Grand Duke Oleg besieges Constantinople, after which peace with the Greeks follows, after him Igor, the son of Rurik, marches on Byzantium in 941-945, and in 946 concludes treaties with it on peace, trade and mutual military aid. Igor's son Svyatoslav in 970 helps the Byzantine emperor in the war against Danube Bulgaria.
1. Pre-Cyrillic writing and knowledge of the Slavs
Language and writing are perhaps the most important culture-forming factors. If the people are deprived of the right or the opportunity to speak their native language, then this will be the hardest blow to their native culture. If a person is deprived of books in his native language, then he will be deprived of the most important treasures of his culture. Since childhood, we get used to the letters of our Russian alphabet and rarely think about when and how our writing arose. The beginning of writing is a special milestone in the history of each nation, in the history of its culture.
Writing existed in Russia even in the pre-Christian period, but the question of pre-Cyrillic Slavic writing remained controversial until recently. Only as a result of the works of scientists, as well as in connection with the discovery of new ancient monuments, the existence of writing among the Slavs in the pre-Cyril period is almost proven.
A historian working on the problems of Russian history of the XII-XIV centuries has only chronicles preserved, as a rule, in late lists, very few officially survived documents, monuments of legislation, rare works of fiction and canonical church books. Taken together, these written sources make up a tiny fraction of a percent of the 19th century written sources. Even less written evidence has survived from the 10th and 11th centuries. The paucity of ancient Russian written sources is the result of one of the worst disasters in wooden Russia - frequent fires, during which entire cities with all their riches, including books, were burned out more than once.
In Russian works up to the mid-40s of the twentieth century, and in most foreign works - and until now, the existence of writing among the Slavs in the pre-Cyrillic period was usually denied. From the second half of the 40s to the end of the 50s of the twentieth century, many researchers of this issue showed the opposite tendency - to excessively reduce the role of external influences on the emergence of Slavic writing, to believe that writing independently arose among the Slavs since ancient times. Moreover, there were even suggestions that Slavic writing repeated the entire path of world development of writing - from the original pictograms and primitive conventional signs to logography, from logographers to syllabic or consonant sound and, finally, to vocalized sound writing.
However, according to the general laws of the development of writing, as well as according to the characteristics of the Slavic languages of the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. such a path of development should be recognized as impossible. The world history of writing shows that not one of the peoples, even the most ancient, did not completely go through the entire path of world development of writing. The Slavs, including the Eastern ones, were young peoples.
The decomposition of the primitive communal system began among them only in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. and ended in the second half of the 1st millennium with the formation of early feudal states. In such a short time, the Slavs could not independently go through the difficult path from pictography to logography, and from it to sound writing. In addition, the Slavs during this period were in close trade and cultural ties with the Byzantine Greeks. And the Greeks have long been using the perfect vocalized-sound writing, which the Slavs knew about. Vocalized-sound writing was also used by other neighbors of the Slavs: in the west, the Germans, in the east, the Georgians (from the beginning of our era), the Armenians (from the beginning of the 5th century A.D.), the Goths (from the 4th century A.D.). ) and Khazars (from the VIII century A.D.).
In addition, logographic writing could not have developed among the Slavs, since the Slavic languages are characterized by a richness of grammatical forms; syllabic writing would be unsuitable, since Slavic languages are distinguished by a variety of syllabic composition; consonant-sound writing would be unacceptable for the Slavs, because in the Slavic languages, consonants and vowels are equally involved in the formation of root and affixal morphemes. From all that has been said, it follows that the pre-Cyrillic Slavic writing could be of only three types.
The surviving mentions of "lines and cuts" in the legend "About pismenekh" (the turn of the 9th-10th centuries) have survived to our days. The author, a monk-citizen Brave, noted that the pagan Slavs use pictorial signs with which they "chitahu and gadakhu" (read and guess). The emergence of such an initial letter took place when, on the basis of small and scattered clan groups, more complex, large and durable forms of community of people arose - tribes and tribal alliances. Proof of the presence of pre-Christian writing among the Slavs is a broken clay korchaga discovered in 1949 in the Gnezdovo pagan mounds near Smolensk, on which the inscription "goruhshcha" ("gorushna") was preserved, which meant: either "Gorukh wrote" or "mustard". In addition to Gnezdovskaya, fragments of inscriptions and digital calculations were found on amphoras and other vessels of the 10th century. in Taman (ancient Tmutarakan), Sarkel and the Black Sea ports. Writing based on various alphabets (Greek, Cyrillic, runic) was used by the diverse population of the most ancient cities and proto-cities located on important trade routes. Trade became the soil that contributed to the spread throughout the territory of Russia, adapted for Slavic speech and convenient for writing Cyrillic.
Along with the testimony of the monastic Khrabra, with the above considerations of a sociological and linguistic order, the existence of a letter of the type "devil and cut" among the Slavs is also confirmed by literary reports of foreign travelers and writers of the 9th-10th centuries. and archaeological finds.
A "pre-Cyrillic" letter was formed. History shows that a similar process of adaptation of writing to language took place in almost all cases of borrowing by one people the writing of another people, for example, when the Phoenician writing was borrowed by the Greeks, Greek by the Etruscans and Romans, etc. The Slavs could not be an exception to this rule. The assumption of the gradual formation of the "pre-Cyril" letter is also confirmed by the fact that the Cyril alphabet in its extant version is so adapted to the exact transmission of Slavic speech that this could be achieved only as a result of long development.
If letter writing did not exist among the Slavs long before their adoption of Christianity, then the unexpected flourishing of Bulgarian literature at the end of the 9th-beginning of the 10th centuries, and the widespread literacy in the everyday life of the Eastern Slavs of the 10th-11th centuries, and high skill, would be incomprehensible. which reached in Russia already in the XI century. the art of writing and book design (for example, "The Ostromir Gospel").
Thus, now we can say with confidence that in the pre-Cyrillic era the Slavs had several types of writing; most likely, it was not fully adapted for the accurate transmission of Slavic speech and was of a syllabic or runic character, the Slavs and the simplest writing of the "lines and cuts" type were used for various purposes. The spread of Christianity among the Slavs was a political step both on the part of the Slavs, who sought to consolidate their position in Europe, and on the part of the Roman-Byzantine world, which sought to establish its rule over the Slavic peoples, which were gaining more and more political influence. This is partly due to the almost complete destruction of the oldest Slavic writing and the rapid spread of new alphabets among people accustomed to writing.
Spread of Greco-Byzantine cultural and scientific traditions
Byzantium is a state that made a great contribution to the development of culture in Europe in the Middle Ages. In the history of world culture of Byzantium, a special, outstanding place belongs. In artistic creation, Byzantium gave the medieval world high images of literature and art, which were distinguished by noble grace of forms, imaginative vision of thought, refinement of aesthetic thinking, depth of philosophical thought. By the power of expressiveness and deep spirituality, Byzantium stood ahead of all the countries of medieval Europe for many centuries.
If you try to separate the Byzantine culture from the culture of Europe, the Near East and the Near East, then the following factors will be the most important:
· In Byzantium there was a linguistic community (the main language was Greek); · In Byzantium there was a religious community (the main religion was Christianity in the form of Orthodoxy); · In Byzantium, for all the multi-ethnicity, there was an ethnic core consisting of Greeks. · The Byzantine Empire has always been distinguished by a stable statehood and centralized government. All this, of course, does not exclude the fact that the Byzantine culture, which had an impact on many neighboring countries, itself was subjected to cultural influence from both the tribes and peoples inhabiting it and the states adjacent to it. During its thousand-year existence, Byzantium was faced with powerful external cultural influences emanating from countries that were at a similar stage of development - from Iran, Egypt, Syria, Transcaucasia, and later the Latin West and Ancient Russia. On the other hand, Byzantium had to enter into various cultural contacts with peoples at a somewhat or much lower stage of development (the Byzantines called them "barbarians"). The development of Byzantium was not straightforward. It had epochs of upsurge and decline, periods of the triumph of progressive ideas and dark years of the domination of the reactionary. But the sprouts of the new, living, advanced sprout sooner or later in all spheres of life, at all times. Therefore, the culture of Byzantium is an interesting cultural and historical type with very specific features. Three stages are distinguished in the history of Byzantine culture: *early (IV - mid-VII century); *medium (VII-IX centuries); *late (X-XV centuries). The most important topics of theological discussions at the early stage of the development of this culture were disputes about the nature of Christ and his place in the Trinity, about the meaning of human existence, the place of man in the Universe and about the limit of his possibilities. In this regard, several directions of theological thought of that era can be distinguished: *Arianism: The Arians believed that Christ is the creation of God the Father, and therefore he is not consubstantial with God the Father, is not eternal and occupies a subordinate place in the structure of the Trinity. *Nestorianism: Nestorians believed that the divine and human principles in Christ are one only relatively and never merge. *Monophisitism: Monophisites emphasized primarily the divine nature of Christ and spoke of Christ as a God-man. *Chalcedonianism: The Chalcedonites preached those ideas that later became dominant: the consubstantiality of God the Father and God the Son, the non-fusion and inseparability of the divine and human in Christ. The flourishing of Byzantine art in the early period is associated with the strengthening of the power of the empire under Justinian. At this time, magnificent palaces and temples were erected in Constantinople. The style of Byzantine architecture took shape gradually, elements of ancient and oriental architecture were organically combined in it. The main architectural structure was a temple, the so-called basilica (Greek "royal house"), the purpose of which was significantly different from other buildings. Another masterpiece of Byzantine architecture is the church of St. Vitalia in Ravenna - strikes with sophistication and elegance of architectural forms. This temple was especially famous for its famous mosaics, not only of a church, but also of a secular nature, in particular, images of the Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora and their retinue. The faces of Justinian and Theodora are endowed with portrait features, the color scheme of the mosaics is distinguished by full-blooded brightness, warmth and freshness. Mosaics of Byzantium gained worldwide fame. The technology of mosaic art has been known since antiquity, but it was only in Byzantium that not natural, but glass alloys painted with mineral paints, the so-called smalts with the finest gold surface, began to be used for the first time. The masters made extensive use of the gold color, which, on the one hand, symbolized luxury and wealth, and on the other, was the brightest and most radiant of all colors. Most of the mosaics were located at different angles of inclination on the concave or spherical surface of the walls, and this only increased the golden shine of uneven smalt cubes. He turned the plane of the walls into a continuous shimmering space, even more sparkling thanks to the light of candles burning in the temple. The mosaicists of Byzantium used a wide colorful spectrum: from pale blue, green and bright blue to lavender, pink and red in various shades and degrees of intensity. The images on the walls mainly told about the main events of Christian history, the earthly life of Jesus Christ, glorified the power of the emperor. The mosaics of the Church of San Vitale in the city of Ravenna (6th century) are especially famous. On the side aisles of the apse, on both sides of the windows, there are mosaics depicting the imperial couple - Justinian and his wife Theodora with their retinues. The artist places the characters on a neutral gold background. Everything in this scene is full of solemn grandeur. Both mosaic paintings, located under the figure of the seated Christ, inspire the viewer with the idea of the inviolability of the Byzantine emperor. In painting of the 6th-7th centuries. a specific Byzantine image crystallizes, cleansed of foreign influences. It is based on the experience of the masters of the East and West, who independently came to the creation of a new art, corresponding to the spiritualistic ideals of medieval society. Various trends and schools are already emerging in this art. The metropolitan school, for example, was distinguished by excellent quality of performance, refined artistry, picturesque and colorful variety, tremulousness and iridescence of colors. One of the most perfect works of this school was the mosaics in the dome of the Church of the Assumption at Nicaea. Music occupied a special place in Byzantine civilization. A peculiar combination of authoritarianism and democracy could not but affect the character of musical culture, which was a complex and multifaceted phenomenon of the spiritual life of the era. In the V-VII centuries. the formation of the Christian liturgy took place, new genres of vocal art developed. Music acquires a special civil status, is included in the system of representation of state power. The music of city streets, theater and circus performances and folk festivals retained a special flavor, reflecting the richest song and musical practice of many peoples inhabiting the empire. Each of these types of music had its own aesthetic and social meaning, and at the same time, interacting, they merged into a single and unique whole. Christianity very early appreciated the special possibilities of music as a universal art and, at the same time, possessing the power of mass and individual psychological impact, and included it in its cult ritual. It was cult music that was destined to occupy a dominant position in medieval Byzantium. *Trivium - grammar, rhetoric and dialectics. *Quadrivium - arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. Mass spectacles still played a huge role in the life of the broad masses. True, the ancient theater is beginning to decline - ancient tragedies and comedies are increasingly being replaced by performances of mimes, jugglers, dancers, gymnasts, and tamers of wild animals. The place of the theater is now occupied by a circus (hippodrome) with its extremely popular equestrian rides. Summing up the first period of Byzantine existence, we can say that during this period the main features of Byzantine culture were formed. First of all, they should include the fact that Byzantine culture was open to other cultural influences received from outside. But gradually, already in the early period, they were synthesized by the main, leading Greco-Roman culture. The culture of early Byzantium was an urban culture. The large cities of the empire, and first of all Constantinople, were not only centers of crafts and trade, but also centers of the highest culture and education, where the rich heritage of antiquity was preserved. An important component of the second stage in the history of Byzantine culture was the confrontation between iconoclasts and icon-worshipers (726-843). The first direction was supported by the ruling secular elite, and the second - by the orthodox clergy and many segments of the population. During the period of iconoclasm (726-843), an attempt was made to officially prohibit icons. The philosopher, poet, author of many theological works, John Damascene (700-760), spoke out in defense of the icons. In his opinion, the icon is fundamentally different from the idol. It is not a copy or decoration, but an illustration that reflects the nature and essence of the deity. At a certain stage, the iconoclasts prevailed, therefore, ornamental and decorative abstract symbolic elements predominated in Byzantine Christian art for some time. However, the struggle between the supporters of these directions was extremely tough, and in this confrontation many monuments of the early stage of Byzantine culture perished, in particular the first mosaics of the Cathedral of St. Sophia of Constantinople. But nevertheless, the final victory was won by the adherents of the veneration of icons, which further contributed to the final formation of the iconographic canon - strict rules for depicting all scenes of religious content. It should be noted that the essential moment that the iconoclastic movement served as a stimulus for a new rise of the secular art and architecture of Byzantium. Under the iconoclastic emperors, the influence of Muslim architecture penetrated into architecture. So, one of the Vrias palaces in Constantinople was built according to the plan of the palaces of Baghdad. All palaces were surrounded by parks with fountains, exotic flowers and trees. In Constantinople, Nicaea and other cities of Greece and Asia Minor, city walls, public buildings, and private buildings were erected. In the secular art of the iconoclastic period, the principles of representative solemnity, architectural monumentality and colorful multi-figured decorativeness, which later served as the basis for the development of secular artistic creativity, triumphed. During this period, the art of colored mosaic images reached a new heyday. In the IX-XI centuries. old monuments were also restored. Mosaics were renewed in the church of St. Sofia. New plots appeared, which reflected the idea of an alliance between the church and the state. In the IX-X centuries. The decor of manuscripts has become much richer and more complex, book miniatures and ornaments have become richer and more diverse. However, a truly new period in the development of book miniatures falls on the 11th-12th centuries, when the Constantinople school of masters in this field of art flourished. In that era, in general, the leading role in painting as a whole (in icon painting, miniature, fresco) was acquired by the capital's schools, marked with the stamp of a special perfection of taste and technique. In the VII-VIII centuries. In the temple construction of Byzantium and the countries of the Byzantine cultural circle, the same cross-domed composition prevailed, which arose in the 6th century. and was characterized by a weakly expressed external decorative design. The decor of the facade acquired great importance in the 9th-10th centuries, when a new architectural style emerged and spread. The emergence of a new style was associated with the flourishing of cities, the strengthening of the social role of the church, a change in the social content of the very concept of sacred architecture in general and temple construction in particular (temple as an image of the world). Many new temples were erected, a large number of monasteries were built, although they were like usually small in size. In addition to changes in the decorative design of buildings, architectural forms and the very composition of buildings also changed. The value of the vertical lines and divisions of the facade increased, which also changed the silhouette of the temple. Builders increasingly resorted to the use of patterned brickwork. The features of the new architectural style also appeared in a number of local schools. For example, in Greece X-XII centuries. the preservation of a certain archaism of architectural forms is characteristic (not the dissection of the plane of the facade, the traditional forms of small temples) - with the further development and growth of the influence of the new style - patterned brick decor and polychrome plastic were also increasingly used here. In the VIII-XII centuries. a special musical and poetic church art took shape. Due to its high artistic merit, the influence of folklore music on church music has weakened, the melodies of which had previously penetrated even into the liturgy. In order to further isolate the musical foundations of worship from external influences, the canonization of the laotonal system - "octoiha" (octopus) was carried out. Ichos were some kind of melodic formulas. However, the musical-theoretical monuments allow us to conclude that the system of ichos did not exclude the understanding of scale. The most popular genres of church music were the canon (musical and poetic composition during a church service) and the troparion (almost the main cell of Byzantine hymnography). Tropari were composed for all holidays, all solemn events and memorable dates. The progress of musical art led to the creation of musical notation (notation), as well as liturgical manuscript collections in which chants were recorded (either only the text, or a text with notation). Public life was also not complete without music. In the book "On the ceremonies of the Byzantine court" about 400 chants are reported. These are songs-processions, and songs during horse processions, and songs at the imperial feast, and songs-acclamation, etc. From the IX century. In the circles of the intellectual elite, interest in ancient musical culture was growing, although this interest was primarily theoretical: it was not music itself that attracted attention, but the works of ancient Greek music theorists. As a result, by the second period, it can be noted that Byzantium at this time reached its highest power and the highest point of cultural development. In social development and in the evolution of Byzantine culture, contradictory tendencies are evident, due to its middle position between East and West. From the X century. a new stage in the history of Byzantine culture begins - there is a generalization and classification of everything achieved in science, theology, philosophy, literature. In Byzantine culture, this century is associated with the creation of works of a general nature - encyclopedias on history, agriculture, and medicine have been compiled. The treatises of Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (913-959) "On the government", "On the themes", "On the ceremonies of the Byzantine court" - an extensive encyclopedia of the most valuable information about the political and administrative structure of the Byzantine state. At the same time, colorful material of ethnographic and historical-geographical character about the countries and peoples adjacent to the Empire, including the Slavs, was collected here. In culture, generalized spiritualistic principles fully prevail; social thought, literature and art seem to be detached from reality and locked in a circle of higher, abstract ideas. The basic principles of Byzantine aesthetics were also finally formed. The ideal aesthetic object is transferred to the spiritual sphere, and it is now described using such aesthetic categories as beauty, light, color, image, sign, symbol. These categories help to highlight global issues of art and other areas of culture. In artistic creation, traditionalism and canonicity prevail; art now does not contradict the tenets of the official religion, but actively serves them. However, the duality of Byzantine culture, the confrontation between aristocratic and popular trends in it did not disappear even during periods of the most complete domination of dogmatized church ideology. In the XI-XII centuries. in Byzantine culture, there are serious worldview shifts. The growth of provincial cities, the rise of crafts and trade, the crystallization of the political and intellectual self-consciousness of the townspeople, the feudal consolidation of the ruling class while maintaining a centralized state, rapprochement with the West under the Comnenes could not but affect culture. A significant accumulation of positive knowledge, the growth of natural sciences, the expansion of man's ideas about the Earth and the universe, the needs of navigation, trade, diplomacy, jurisprudence, the development of cultural communication with the countries of Europe and the Arab world - all this leads to the enrichment of Byzantine culture and major changes in the outlook of Byzantine society ... This was the time of the rise of scientific knowledge and the birth of rationalism in the philosophical thought of Byzantium. Rationalistic tendencies among Byzantine philosophers and theologians, as well as among Western European scholastics of the 11th-12th centuries, manifested themselves primarily in the desire to combine faith with reason, and sometimes put reason above faith. The most important prerequisite for the development of rationalism in Byzantium was a new stage in the revival of ancient culture, the understanding of the ancient heritage as a single, integral philosophical and aesthetic system. Byzantine thinkers XI-XII centuries perceive from ancient philosophers respect for reason; the blind faith based on authority is being replaced by the study of the causality of phenomena in nature and society. But unlike Western European scholasticism, Byzantine philosophy of the XI-XII centuries. was built on the basis of the ancient philosophical teachings of different schools, and not only on the works of Aristotle, as it was in the West. The exponents of rationalistic trends in Byzantine philosophy were "Michael Psellus, John Italus and their followers. However, all these representatives of rationalism and religious free thinking were condemned by the church, and their works were burned. But their activity was not in vain - it paved the way for the emergence of humanistic ideas in Byzantium. In the literature, there are tendencies towards the democratization of the language and plot, towards the individualization of the author's face, towards the manifestation of the author's position; in it a critical attitude to the ascetic monastic ideal arises and religious doubts slip through. Literary life becomes more intense, literary circles appear. Byzantine art also flourished during this period. At the court of Latin emperors, princes and barons Western customs and entertainment, tournaments, troubadour songs, holidays and theatrical performances were spread. A notable phenomenon in the culture of the Latin Empire was the work of troubadours, many of whom were participants in the Fourth Crusade. Thus, Conon de Bethune reached the zenith of his glory in Constantinople. Eloquence, poetic gift, firmness and courage made him the second person in the state after the emperor, in whose absence he often ruled Constantinople. Truvers of the empire were the noble knights Robert de Blois, Hugh de Saint-Canton, Comte Jean de Brienne, and lesser nobles such as Hugh de Brezhil. All of them enriched themselves after the capture of Constantinople, and, as Hugo de Breigil tells in the rhythmic verses, from poverty plunged into wealth, into emeralds, rubies, brocade, ended up in fairy gardens and marble palaces along with noble ladies and beauties-maidens. Of course, attempts to introduce the Catholic religion and spread Western culture in the Latin Empire met with constant stubborn resistance from both the Orthodox clergy and the general population. Among the intellectuals, the ideas of Hellenic patriotism and Hellenic self-awareness grew and became stronger. But the meeting and mutual influence of Western and Byzantine cultures during this period prepared for their rapprochement in late Byzantium. The culture of late Byzantium was characterized by the ideological communication of the Byzantine scholars with Italian scientists, writers, and poets, which influenced the formation of early Italian humanism. It was the Byzantine erudites who were destined to open the wonderful world of Greco-Roman antiquity to Western humanists, to acquaint them with classical ancient literature, with the true philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. It should be noted that the concept of "Byzantine humanism" denotes the cultural, spiritual, intellectual, psychological and aesthetic complex that is characteristic of the worldview of the erudite layer of the XIV-XV centuries, and which, by its characteristics, can be considered an analogue of Italian humanism. At the same time, it is not so much about the completed and formed culture of humanism, but about humanistic tendencies, not so much about the revival of antiquity, but about the well-known rethinking of the ancient heritage, paganism as a system of views, about its transformation into a factor of worldview. The broadest knowledge of such famous Byzantine philosophers, theologians, philologists, rhetoricians as George Gemist Plifon, Dmitry Kidonis, Manuel Chrysolor, Vissarion of Nicea and others, aroused the boundless admiration of Italian humanists, many of whom became disciples and followers of Byzantine scholars. However, the inconsistency of social relations in late Byzantium, the weakness of the germs of pre-capitalist relations, the onslaught of the Turks and a sharp ideological struggle, which ended in the victory of mystical currents, led to the fact that the new direction in artistic creativity that arose there, akin to the early Italian Renaissance, did not receive an end. Simultaneously with the development of humanistic ideas in late Byzantium, an extraordinary rise of mysticism took place. As if all the temporarily lurking forces of spiritualism and mysticism, asceticism and detachment from life were now consolidated in the hesychast movement, in the teachings of Gregory Palamas, and began an attack on the ideals of the Renaissance. In an atmosphere of hopelessness generated by the deadly military danger, feudal strife and the defeat of popular movements, in particular the uprising of the Zealots, among the Byzantine clergy and monasticism there was a growing conviction that salvation from earthly troubles could be found only in the world of passive contemplation, complete tranquility - hesychia, in self-deepened ecstasy , allegedly bestowing a mystical fusion with a deity and illumination with divine light. Supported by the ruling church and the feudal nobility, the teachings of the hesychasts triumphed, enchanting the wide masses of the empire with mystical ideas. The victory of hesychasm was in many ways fatal for the Byzantine state: hesychasm stifled the germs of humanistic ideas in literature and art, weakened the will to resist the masses of the people with external enemies. Superstition flourished in late Byzantium. Social turmoil gave rise to thoughts about the approaching end of the world. Even among educated people, fortune-telling, predictions, and sometimes magic were common. Byzantine authors more than once turned to the plot about the prophecies of the Sibyl, who allegedly correctly determined the number of Byzantine emperors and patriarchs, and thus allegedly predicted the time of the death of the empire. There were special fortune-telling books (bible chris-matogy) that predicted the future. Religious sentiment was highly characteristic of late Byzantine society. The sermons of asceticism and anchorism addressed to the people could not but leave a trace. The life of many people, both from the nobility and representatives of the lower classes, was marked by the desire for solitude, for prayer. The words of George the Acropolitan could characterize more than just the despot John: “He spent whole nights in prayer ... such a life. " Leaving political life for a monastery is far from being isolated. The desire to get away from public affairs was primarily due to the fact that contemporaries did not see a way out of those unfavorable collisions of the domestic and international plan, which testified to the fall of the empire's authority and its approach to catastrophe. Summing up the development of Byzantine culture in the XI-XII centuries, we can note some important new features. Of course, the culture of the Byzantine Empire at this time was still medieval, traditional, in many respects canonical. But in the artistic life of society, despite its canonicity and the unification of aesthetic values, the sprouts of new pre-Renaissance trends are breaking through, which found further development in Byzantine art of the Paleologian era. They affect not only and not so much the return of interest in antiquity, which never died in Byzantium, but in the emergence of the germs of rationalism and free-thinking, in the intensification of the struggle of various social groups in the cultural sphere, in the growth of social discontent. What is the contribution of the Byzantine civilization to world culture? First of all, it should be noted that Byzantium was a "golden bridge" between Western and Eastern cultures; it had a profound and lasting impact on the development of the cultures of many countries of medieval Europe. The area of the spread of the influence of Byzantine culture was very extensive: Sicily, southern Italy, Dalmatia, the states of the Balkan Peninsula, Ancient Russia, Transcaucasia, the North Caucasus and the Crimea - all of them, to one degree or another, were in contact with Byzantine education. The most intense Byzantine cultural influence, naturally, affected the countries where Orthodoxy was established, connected by strong threads with the Church of Constantinople. Byzantine influence manifested itself in the field of religion and philosophy, social thought and cosmology, writing and education, political ideas and law, it penetrated into all spheres of art - into literature and architecture, painting and music. Through Byzantium, the ancient and Hellenistic cultural heritage, spiritual values, created not only in Greece itself, but also in Egypt and Syria, Palestine and Italy, were passed on to other peoples. The perception of the traditions of Byzantine culture in Bulgaria and Serbia, Georgia and Armenia, in Ancient Rus contributed to the further progressive development of their cultures. Despite the fact that Byzantium lasted 1000 years longer than the Great Roman Empire, it was conquered in the XIV century. Seljuk Turks. Turkish troops, who conquered Constantinople in 1453, put an end to the history of the Byzantine Empire. But this was not the end of her artistic and cultural development. Byzantium made a huge contribution to the development of world culture. Its basic principles and directions of culture passed to neighboring states. Almost all the time, medieval Europe developed on the basis of the achievements of Byzantine culture. Byzantium can be called "the second Rome", because its contribution to the development of Europe and the whole world is in no way inferior to the Roman Empire. After 1000 years of history, Byzantium ceased to exist, but the original and interesting Byzantine culture did not remain in oblivion, which passed on the cultural and historical baton to Russian culture. Christianization of Rus: the development of everyday and spiritual culture The beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe is usually associated with the transition from paganism to Christianity. And in our history, the adoption of Christianity has become an important milestone. The unification of the Old Russian lands into a single state set an important task for the Grand Dukes - to give the tribes that entered it a single spiritual basis. Christianity was the spiritual foundation of European civilization. In this sense, Vladimir's choice was correct. It showed an orientation towards Europe. Of the two most significant branches of Christianity: Catholicism and Orthodoxy, he chose Orthodoxy or Orthodox Christianity. The adoption of Christianity had long-term consequences for Russia. First of all, it defined its further development as a European country, became part of the Christian world and played a significant role in Europe of that time. The baptism of Rus took place in 988, when, by order of the Grand Duke Vladimir, the Kievites had to be baptized in the waters of the Dnieper, recognize one God, abandon the pagan gods and overthrow their images - idols. In some principalities, baptism was accepted voluntarily, in others it provoked popular resistance. It can be assumed that the people of Kiev perceived baptism as a pagan act - cleansing with water and finding another god, the patron saint of the prince. After the adoption of Christianity, Orthodoxy gradually began to influence ethnic consciousness and culture. The influence of the Russian Church extended to all aspects of social life. State acts, holidays (church and state), lighting and services for the beginning and end of any event; registration of acts of registration of births, marriages and deaths - all this was in the jurisdiction of the church. The princely power actively influenced the formation and strengthening of the Orthodox Church in Russia. A system of material support for the church has developed. An Orthodox church becomes the center of not only the spiritual, but also the social and economic life of the parish, especially the rural one. The church has taken an important place in the political life of the country. The princes, starting with Vladimir, called upon the metropolitans and bishops to participate in state affairs; at the princely congresses, the clergy was in first place after the princes. The Russian Church acted in the princely feuds as a pacifying party, she stood up for the preservation of peace and the welfare of the state. This position of the church is reflected in theological and artistic works. The clergy were the most educated segment of society. Generally significant ideas were put forward in the writings of church leaders, the position of Russia in the world and the ways of development of Russian culture were comprehended. During the fragmentation of Russia and the Mongol Tatar invasion, the Russian Orthodox Church was the bearer of the Orthodox faith, which made it possible to maintain the unity of Russia in the popular consciousness. From the middle of the XIV century. a cultural upsurge gradually begins, the development of education, the spread of literacy and the accumulation of scientific knowledge in all areas. External contacts are revived due to diplomatic ties, pilgrimage to holy places, trade. As a result, people's horizons are broadened. Since the XV century. the process of the formation of the Russian national idea, the cultural and religious self-determination of the people is taking place more actively. It manifested itself in comprehending the place of Russia and the world, ways of its further development and national priorities. A certain impetus in this direction was the Florentine Union of 1439 (the union of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches). As a result of complex political and religious processes, the Russian Orthodox Church in 1539 became autocephalous - independent, with a patriarch at its head. Development of the Slavic alphabet by the Byzantine diplomat and Slavic educator Cyril writing christianization rus byzantine The creation of Slavic writing is rightfully attributed to the brothers Constantine the Philosopher (in monasticism - Cyril) and Methodius. Information about the beginning of Slavic writing can be gleaned from various sources: the Slavic lives of Cyril and Methodius, several words of praise and church services in their honor, the works of the monastic Khrabr "On the Writings", etc. In 863 an embassy from the Great Moravian prince Rostislav arrived in Constantinople. The ambassadors conveyed to Emperor Michael III a request to send missionaries to Moravia who could preach sermons in a language understandable to the Moravians (Moravians) instead of the Latin language of the German clergy. The Great Moravian Empire (830-906) was a large early feudal state of the Western Slavs. Apparently, already under the first prince Moimir (ruled 830-846), representatives of the princely family adopted Christianity. Under Moymir's successor Rostislav (846-870), the Great Moravian empire waged an intense struggle against German expansion, the instrument of which was the church. Rostislav tried to oppose the German Church, creating an independent Slavic bishopric, and therefore turned to Byzantium, knowing that the Slavs lived in Byzantium and in its neighborhood. Rostislav's request to send missionaries was in the interests of Byzantium, which had long sought to extend its influence to the Western Slavs. It corresponded even more to the interests of the Byzantine Church, whose relations with Rome in the middle of the 9th century. became more and more hostile. Just in the year of the arrival of the Great Moravian embassy, these relations became so aggravated that Pope Nicholas even publicly cursed Patriarch Photius. Emperor Michael III and Patriarch Photius decided to send a mission to Great Moravia headed by Constantine the Philosopher and Methodius. This choice was not accidental. Konstantin already had a rich experience of missionary activity and proved himself to be a brilliant dialectician and diplomat in it. This decision was also due to the fact that the brothers, originating from the semi-Slavic-semi-Greek city of Solun, knew the Slavic language perfectly. Constantine (826-869) and his older brother Methodius (820-885) were born and spent their childhood in the bustling Macedonian port city of Soluni (now Thessaloniki, Greece). In the early 1950s, Constantine proved himself to be a skillful orator, having won a brilliant victory in a debate over the former patriarch Arius. It was from this time that Emperor Michael, and then Patriarch Photius, began almost continuously to send Constantine as an envoy of Byzantium to neighboring peoples to convince them of the superiority of Byzantine Christianity over other religions. So Konstantin, as a missionary, visited Bulgaria, Syria and the Khazar Kaganate. The character and, consequently, the life of Methodius were largely similar, but in many respects they were different from the character and life of his younger brother. Both of them lived mainly a spiritual life, striving to embody their beliefs and ideas, not attaching importance to either wealth, or career, or fame. The brothers never had wives or children, wandered all their lives, never creating a home for themselves, and even died in a foreign land. It is no coincidence that not a single literary work of Constantine and Methodius has survived to this day, although both of them, especially Constantine, wrote and translated many scientific and literary works; finally, it is still not known which alphabet was created by Constantine the Philosopher - Cyrillic or Glagolitic. In addition to similar features, there were many different in the nature of the brothers, however, despite this, they ideally complemented each other in conscientious work. The younger brother wrote, the older one translated his works. The younger created the Slavic alphabet, Slavic writing and book business, the older practically developed what the younger had created. The younger was a talented scientist, philosopher, brilliant dialectician and subtle philologist; the elder is a capable organizer and practitioner. It is not surprising that at a council convened on the occasion of the Moravian embassy, the emperor announced that no one would fulfill the request of Prince Rostislav better than Constantine the Philosopher. After that, according to the story "Life", Constantine retired from the council and prayed for a long time. According to chronicle and documentary sources, then he developed the Slavic alphabet. "The Philosopher went and, according to the old custom, began to pray with other helpers. And soon God revealed them to him that he was listening to the prayers of his servants, and then he folded the letters and began to write the words of the Gospel: from time immemorial there was the word and the word of God, and God was the word ("In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God") and so on. " "Psalter" and selected passages from "Church services"). Thus, the first Slavic literary language was born, many of whose words are still alive in the Slavic languages, including Bulgarian and Russian. Constantine and Methodius went to Great Moravia. In the summer of 863, after a long and difficult journey, the brothers finally arrived at the hospitable capital of Moravia, Velehrad. Prince Rostislav received the envoys of friendly Byzantium. With his help, the brothers chose disciples for themselves and diligently taught them the Slavic alphabet and church services in the Slavic language, and in their free time they continued to translate the brought Greek books into the Slavic language. So, from the very arrival in Moravia, Constantine and Methodius did everything possible for the speedy dissemination of Slavic writing and culture in the country. Gradually, the Moravians (Moravians) became more and more accustomed to hearing their native language in churches. Churches where services were conducted in Latin were emptied, and the German Catholic clergy was losing their influence and income in Moravia, and therefore attacked the brothers with malice, accusing them of heresy. Having prepared disciples, Constantine and Methodius, however, faced a serious difficulty: since none of them was a bishop, they had no right to ordain priests. And the German bishops refused this, since they were by no means interested in the development of divine services in the Slavic language. In addition, the activities of the brothers in the direction of the development of worship in the Slavic language, being historically progressive, came into conflict with the so-called theory of trilingualism, created in the early Middle Ages, according to which only three languages had the right to exist in worship and literature: Greek, Hebrew and Latin. Constantine and Methodius had only one way out - to seek a solution to the difficulties that had arisen in Byzantium or in Rome. However, oddly enough, the brothers choose Rome, although at that moment the papal throne was occupied by Nicholas, who fiercely hated Patriarch Photius and everyone associated with him. Despite this, Constantine and Methodius hoped for a favorable reception from the pope, and not without reason. The fact is that Constantine had the remains of Clement, the third pope in order, if we assume that the very first was the Apostle Peter, which he found. Having such a valuable relic in their hands, the brothers could be sure that Nicholas would make big concessions, up to the permission of divine services in the Slavic language. In the middle of 866, after 3 years in Moravia, Constantine and Methodius, accompanied by their disciples, left Velehrad for Rome. On the way, the brothers met the Pannonian prince Kocel. He well understood the significance of the work undertaken by Constantine and Methodius and treated the brothers as a friend and ally. Kotsel himself learned Slavic literacy from them and sent about fifty students with them for the same training and ordination. Thus, Slavic writing, in addition to Moravia, became widespread in Pannonia, where the ancestors of modern Slovenes lived. By the time the brothers arrived in Rome, Pope Nicholas was replaced by Adrian II. He favorably accepts Constantine and Methodius, allows divine services in the Slavic language, ordains brothers to priests, and their disciples to enlighteners and deacons. The brothers remain in Rome for almost two years. Konstantin falls seriously ill. Feeling the approach of death, he is tonsured a monk and takes a new name - Cyril. Shortly before his death, he turns to Methodius: “Behold, brother, you and I were a couple in the same team and plowed the same furrow, and I fall in the field, having finished my day. how else can you achieve salvation? " On February 14, 869, Constantine-Cyril died at the age of 42. Methodius, on the advice of Kocel, achieves consecration to the rank of Archbishop of Moravia and Pannonia. In 870 he returned to Pannonia, where he was persecuted by the German clergy and imprisoned for some time. In the middle of 884 Methodius moved to Moravia and was engaged in translating the Bible into the Slavic language. He dies on April 6, 885. The brothers' activities were continued in the South Slavic countries by their disciples, expelled from Moravia in 886. In the West, Slavic divine services and literacy did not survive, but were approved in Bulgaria, from where they spread from the 9th century to Russia, Serbia and other countries. The significance of the activities of Constantine (Cyril) and Methodius consisted in the creation of the Slavic alphabet, the development of the first Slavic literary-written language, the formation of the foundations for the creation of texts in the Slavic literary-written language. Cyril and Methodius traditions were the most important foundation of the literary and written languages of the southern Slavs, as well as the Slavs of the Great Moravian state. In addition, they deeply influenced the formation of the literary-written language and texts in it in Ancient Rus, as well as its descendants - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. One way or another, Cyril and Methodius traditions are reflected in the Polish, Serbolic, Polabian languages. Thus, the activities of Constantine (Cyril) and Methodius were of general Slavic significance. Widespread literacy in the urban environment in the 11th-12th centuries: birch bark letters and graffiti The urban culture of Ancient Rus has hardly been studied; little space has been allotted to it even in a large two-volume publication on the history of the culture of Ancient Rus in pre-Mongol times, even less in books on the history of architecture, painting and literature. In this sense, the section on "the culture of Ancient Rus" in such a generalizing work as "Essays on the History of the USSR" (IX-XIII centuries) is very indicative. Here the thesis is absolutely correctly proclaimed that "Russian rural and urban material culture, the culture of peasants and artisans, constituted the basis of the entire culture of Ancient Rus." And then writing, literature and art, albeit in a somewhat obscure form, are declared the property of "feudal landowners" and only folklore is recognized as the property of the poetic creativity of the Russian people. Of course, the monuments of literature, architecture, painting, and applied art that have come down to our time from Ancient Rus in the 11th-13th centuries are works made primarily by order of the feudal lords. But they also reflect the national tastes, moreover, to a greater extent even the tastes of artisans than the feudal lords themselves. Works of art were made according to the idea of artisans and by the hands of artisans. The feudal lords, naturally, expressed general wishes, what they would like to see buildings, weapons, ornaments, but they themselves did not do anything, but embodied their wishes with someone else's hands. The largest role in the creation of art objects in Ancient Russia belonged to the masters-townspeople, and this role has not yet been clarified, but has not even been studied. Therefore, the culture of Ancient Rus appears to be so one-sided in many historical works. In vain we would look for even a paragraph on urban culture in our general and special editions. The city and its cultural life fell out of sight of historians and historians of the culture of Ancient Rus, while the urban culture of the medieval Western European city attracted and continues to attract the attention of researchers. One of the prerequisites for the development of urban culture was the spread of literacy. The wide spread of writing in the cities of Ancient Rus is confirmed by the remarkable discoveries made by Soviet archaeologists. And before them there were already known graffiti inscriptions inscribed by unknown hands on the walls of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, on the walls of the Vydubitskaya Church in Kiev, the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, the Church of Panteleimon in Galich, etc. These inscriptions were made on plaster with a sharp tool, known in the Old Russian script as "schiltsa". Their details are not feudal lords and not churchmen, but ordinary parishioners, therefore, merchants, artisans and other people who attended churches and left their memory in the form of this kind of wall literature. The graffiti custom itself speaks to the spread of literacy in urban circles. Scraps of prayers and prayer appeals, names, whole phrases carved on church walls show that their creators were literate people, and this literacy, if it was not widespread, then was not the lot of a too limited circle of townspeople. After all, the surviving graffiti inscriptions have come down to us by accident. One can imagine how many of them should have perished during various renewals of ancient churches, when, in the name of "splendor", they covered and painted the walls of the wonderful buildings of Ancient Rus with new plaster and painted. Recently, the inscriptions of the XI-XIII centuries. were found on various household items. They had a household purpose, therefore, they were intended for people who could read these inscriptions. If the graffiti inscriptions can to some extent be attributed to the representatives of the clergy, even the lowest, then what princes and boyars made the inscriptions on wine pots and shoe blocks? It is clear that these inscriptions were made by representatives of completely different circles of the population, the writing of which is now becoming our property thanks to the successes of Soviet archaeological and historical science. Even more remarkable finds were made in Novgorod. Here the bottom of one of the barrels was found with a clear inscription of the XII-XIII centuries. - "law". The barrel, therefore, belonged to some Yuri, "Yurishch", according to the old Russian custom to diminish or strengthen the name. On a wooden shoe block for women's shoes, we meet the inscription "Mnezi" - invisible, a woman's name. Two inscriptions are abbreviations of names, they are made on a bone arrow and on a birch bark float. But, perhaps, the most interesting find is the discovery in Novgorod of the so-called Ivan elbow, found during excavations at the Yaroslav's Court in Novgorod. This is a small piece of wood in the form of a broken arshin, on which there was an inscription in letters of the XII-XIII centuries. A wooden cylinder also found in Novgorod is remarkable. It is engraved with the inscription "emetsya hryvnia 3". Yemets is a princely servant who collected court and other duties. The cylinder, apparently, served to store the hryvnia and was provided with a corresponding inscription). Finds from Novgorod show that the spread of writing was significant in craft and trade life, at least this can be said about Novgorod. However, the use of writing on household items was not only a Novgorod feature. B.A. Rybakov described a fragment of a korchaga on which an inscription was preserved. He managed to make out most of it. The complete inscription, apparently, read like this: "the gracious plona of the korchaga si". The words "nesha plona korchaga si" are completely preserved on the remains of this vessel, found in the old part of Kiev during excavation work. About the same, only more extensive, inscription on the fragment of the pot in which the wine was kept, reports A.L. Mongait. Along the edge of this vessel, found in Staraya Ryazan, an inscription is inscribed in letters from the 12th or early 13th century. V.D. Blavatsky discovered a fragment of a vessel from Tmutarakan, on which several obscure letters were made in ancient handwriting. It was not possible to make out this inscription due to its fragmentary nature. Speaking about writing in ancient Russian cities, one must not forget that in a number of handicraft professions, writing was a necessary condition, a need arising from the peculiarities of production itself. These were, first of all, iconic craftsmanship and murals. On icons, as a rule, letters and whole phrases were placed. An icon-painter or a church painter could be a semi-literate person, but he had to know the rudiments of literacy under all conditions, otherwise he could not successfully fulfill the orders he received. In some cases, the artist had to fill in the images of open pages of books or scrolls with long texts (see, for example, the icon of the Mother of God of the Bogolyubsky mid-12th century). The study of inscriptions on icons and murals in relation to their linguistic features has hardly been carried out, but it could have yielded interesting results. So, on the temple icon of Dmitry Selunsky, which stood in the cathedral of the city of Dmitrov, almost from the time of its foundation, we read the signature "Dmitry" next to the Greek designations (about agios - saint). Here the typically Russian, commonplace "Dmitri" is combined with a conventional Greek expression. This reveals that the artist was Russian and not a foreigner. The number of small and large inscriptions on icons and frescoes is so great, the inscriptions themselves are made so carefully and so reflect the development of the living Old Russian language with its features that no special evidence is required to draw a conclusion about the wide development of writing among master artists. Knowledge of at least the elements of literacy was also necessary for silversmiths and gunsmiths who made expensive items. This is evidenced by the custom to mark the names of the masters on some items of the 11th-13th centuries. The names of the masters (Costa, Bratilo) are preserved on the Novgorod craters, on the copper arch from Vshizh (Constantine), on the cross of the Polotsk princess Euphrosyne (Bogsha). Writing was also widespread among bricklayers-builders. Special studies have shown that bricks used for the construction of stone buildings in Ancient Rus usually have marks. So, on several bricks of the cathedral in Staraya Ryazan, the name of the master is imprinted: Yakov. We also find the spread of writing among stone carvers. The oldest examples of Cyril's inscriptions are stone slabs with the remains of letters found in the ruins of the Tithe Church in Kiev at the end of the 10th century. One of the oldest inscriptions was made on the famous Tmutarakan stone. The Sterzhensky cross belongs to 1133; almost simultaneously with him the Borisov stone was erected on the Western Dvina. The prevalence of such crosses and stones with memorial records of the 11th-13th centuries. indicates that writing was firmly rooted in the everyday life of Ancient Russia. The so-called "Stepan's stone" found in the Kalinin region also speaks of the established custom of placing stones with inscriptions on the boundaries. Let us also recall the existence of inscriptions on various kinds of vessels, crosses, icons, ornaments that have come down to us from the 11th-13th centuries. It is impossible to admit that the artisans who made these inscriptions were illiterate people, since in this case we would have clear traces of inability to reproduce the inscriptions on the things themselves. Therefore, it must be assumed that among the artisans there were people with certain writing skills. It can be assumed that the inscriptions on the household items of princes or the higher clergy, as is clearly seen, for example, from the already mentioned inscription on the Old Ryazan vessel, were sometimes made by princely tiuns or some other household servants. The salary of the Mstislav Gospel was made between 1125-1137. at the expense of the prince. A certain Naslav traveled on a princely order to Constantinople and was a prince's servant. But does this give the right to deny the existence of writing among those artisans who were engaged in the production of other, less precious items than the Novgorod craters and the Polotsk cross? Wooden boot stocks, a bone arrow, a birch bark float, a wooden cup with the inscription "smova" found in excavations in Novgorod testify that writing in Kievan Rus was not the property of only feudal lords. It was widespread among trade and craft circles of ancient Russian cities of the 11th-13th centuries. Of course, the spread of writing among artisans should not be exaggerated. Literacy was necessary for craftsmen of a few professions and was prevalent mainly in large cities, but in this case, archaeological finds of recent years lead us far from the usual ideas about unwritten Russia, according to which only monasteries and palaces of princes and boyars were centers of culture. The need for literacy and writing was especially evident in the merchant environment. "Ryad" - the contract - is known to us both from Russian Pravda and from other sources. The oldest private written "row" (Teshaty and Yakima) dates back to the second half of the 13th century, but this does not mean that such written documents did not exist before. This is evidenced by the use of terms related to writing in legal monuments of ancient times. Usually, to prove that Ancient Russia did not know the widespread distribution of private acts, they referred to Russian Pravda, which allegedly does not mention written documents. However, in the lengthy edition of Pravda, "fur" is named, a special collection that went in favor of the scribe: "scribe 10 kunas, 5 kunas on the fur, two legs per fur". Such a connoisseur of ancient writing as I.I. Sreznevsky, translates the term "fur" in Russian Pravda exactly as "leather for writing". Russkaya Pravda itself points out that both the "baggage" and the duty "on fur" went to the scribe. We have an indication of the duty on written transactions and records in the Manuscript of Vsevolod Mstislavich ("Russian letter"). Among the urban population there was also such a stratum for which writing was compulsory - the parish clergy, primarily priests, deacons, deacons, who read and sang in church. Popov's son, who had not learned to read and write, seemed to the people of Ancient Russia to be a kind of undergrowth, a person who had lost the right to his profession, along with an owed merchant or a slave who had been ransomed to freedom. From among the clergy and lower church clerks, cadres of book scribes were recruited. If we remember that the monasteries of Ancient Rus were primarily urban monasteries, then the category of urban residents, among whom literacy was widespread, appears to be quite significant: it included artisans, merchants, clergy, boyars, and princely people. Let literacy not be widespread; at least in the city there were significantly more literate people than in the countryside, where the need for literacy at this time was extremely limited. Among the princes of the XII-XIII centuries. the custom was widespread to exchange the so-called letters of the cross, which were written contracts. The letter of the cross, which the Galician prince Vladimirka "revived" the Kiev prince Vsevolod, is reported under 1144. In 1152 Izyaslav Mstislavich sent the same Vladimirku cross certificates with reproaches of treachery; in 1195 the Kiev prince Rurik sent the letters of the cross to Roman Mstislavich; on the basis of their Rurik "expose" the betrayal of Roman; in 1196, the same letters of the cross were mentioned in relation to Vsevolod the Big Nest. Known about the letters of the cross of Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, etc. Thus, the custom of written treaties between princes became firmly established in Russia in the 12th century. Already at this time, letters-forgeries appeared. It is known about a false letter sent on behalf of Yaroslav Osmomysl in 1172 by the Galician governor and his comrades. The letter in this news is one of the necessary attributes of inter-princely relations. The princely letters that have survived to our time allow us to say that they were already in the XII century. were compiled according to a specific form. Two diplomas of the Novgorod prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, given by him to the Yuryev Monastery in 1125-1137, have the same introduction and conclusion. The letters of Mstislav Vladimirovich (1130) and Izyaslav Mstislavich (1146-1155) 1) were written in approximately the same form. These documents, which came out of the prince's office, were written according to certain samples by experienced scribes. The skills of the princely offices could not be developed overnight. Consequently, they must have been preceded by some period of development. The existence of treaties between Russia and the Greeks tells us that the princely offices in Russia appeared no later than the 10th century. The relatively wide spread of literacy in the urban environment is confirmed by the discovery of Novgorod birch bark letters. The material for writing in Ancient Russia was such an object as birch bark. It cannot even be called cheap, it was just generally available, because birch bark is found wherever birch grows. The processing of the bark for writing was extremely primitive. The properties of birch bark, easily disintegrating and brittle, made it a convenient writing material only for correspondence with temporary significance; books and acts were written on durable parchment, later on paper. The discovery of birch bark letters by A.V. Artsikhovsky dispelled the legend about the extremely weak spread of literacy in Ancient Russia. It turns out that at this time people readily corresponded on various issues. Here is a letter from Guests to Vasily about a difficult family case. Another letter is about a controversial or stolen cow, the third about furs, etc. These are the findings of 1951. The correspondence of the townspeople of the XI-XIII centuries is drawn even more fully and vividly in the letters found during the excavations of 1952. Here are the demands to send "spindles" and "Medvedna" (sacks and bearskins), correspondence about the dishonor of some nobleman, orders for trade and even reports of hostilities. Diplomas on birch bark are valuable because they give an idea of the everyday life and activities of townspeople with their minor concerns of personal and public order. At the same time, they are indisputable evidence of the relatively wide spread of literacy in the cities of Ancient Rus in the 11th-13th centuries. Mathematical, astronomical and geographical knowledge in Ancient Russia The process of uniting the Russian lands around Moscow began in the 14th century, and at the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries. this process has ended. The Russian centralized state was created. But, its lag behind the West was significant. Universities were operating in Europe at that time, the market was developing, manufactures appeared, the bourgeoisie was an organized class, Europeans were actively exploring new lands and continents. Scientific and technical knowledge in the XIV-XVI centuries. in the Russian lands, in most cases, they were at the practical level, there were no theoretical developments. Their main source continued to be books by Western European authors translated into Russian. By the XIV-XVI centuries. mathematics was especially developed, primarily in the practical aspect. The stimulus was the needs of the church and the state. However, the interest of the church was limited only to the area of the church calendar, questions of the chronological determination of holidays and church services. In particular, translated from Latin, special works on mathematics made it possible to calculate the Easter tables, which were brought only up to 1492. The fiscal policy needs of the state have also generated a greater focus on mathematics. Various surveying work was carried out, and, accordingly, knowledge of geometry was needed. Astronomy occupied a special place in the field of natural science. Its development took place in several directions: reproduction and systematization of old astronomical concepts, supplementing them with new knowledge; the development of practical astronomy, associated with the calculation of calendar-astronomical tables; attempts to present the system of the world in a mathematical perspective. Geographical knowledge in the XIV-XVI centuries. did not progress much compared to the previous period. A distinctive feature of this period was the increase in the number of Russian travels abroad. The sources of geographic information were foreign manuals. For example, the Byzantine work "Chronograph", published in 1512. This work bore a tinge of fabulousness. Another translated work of this period - the geography of "Lucidarius" gives superficial information about Western Europe, the geography of Asia is described in some detail, although it contains a lot of mythical information about the population of India, its fauna. In the XV-XVI centuries. philosophical knowledge is actively penetrating into Russia. The country got acquainted with the ideas of Plato and Aristotle through translated literature. Thus, the main source of penetration of Aristotle's ideas was "The Dialectic of St. John of Damascus". Around the same period, the philosophical work of the Arab scientist Al - Ghazali "The Purpose of the Philosopher", who professed the ideas of Neoplatonism, came to Russia. Of the Russian philosophers, it is necessary to single out the works of Ermolai-Erasmus on the cosmic significance of the Holy Trinity. The first parish schools under Vladimir I and Yaroslav the Wise The period of development of domestic education under the princes Vladimir and Yaroslav the Wise is often recognized as the initial one in the entire history of this formation, which is largely associated with Christian churches. Under the year 988, in the Tale of Bygone Years: "And he put (Vladimir) a church in the name of St. Basil on a hill where the idol of Perun and others stood and where the prince and people performed their services. And in other cities they began to erect churches and determine priests in them, and to bring people to baptism in all cities and villages. He sent to collect children from the best people and give them to book training. The mothers of these children cried for them; for they had not yet established themselves in the faith, and cried for them as if they were dead. " (pagans were against Christian innovations). Polish historian Jan Dlugosz (1415-1480) about the Kiev school of "book learning" "Vladimir ... attracts Russian youths to the study of arts, in addition, contains masters requested from Greece." To create a three-volume history of Poland, Dlugosh used Polish, Czech, Hungarian, German sources, and Old Russian chronicles. Apparently, from the chronicle that did not come down to us, he learned the news about the study of arts (sciences) at the Kiev school of Vladimir. According to rough estimates, the "Vladimir school" with a contingent of 300 students in 49 years (988-1037) could prepare over a thousand educated pupils. Yaroslav the Wise used a number of them to develop education in Russia. Teachers of the X-XIII centuries due to the imperfection of teaching methods and individual work in the course of classes with each student individually, he could not deal with more than 6-8 students. The prince recruited a large number of children to school, so at first he was forced to distribute them among the teachers. This division of students into groups was common in Western European schools at the time. From the surviving acts of the cantor of schools in medieval Paris, it is known that the number of students per teacher was from 6 to 12 people, in the schools of the Cluny Monastery - 6 people, in the girls' primary schools in Thiel - 4-5 students. Eight students are depicted in the miniature of the front "Life of Sergius of Radonezh", 5 students are seated in front of the teacher in the engraving of the front "ABC" of 1637 by V. Burtsov. About this number of students is evidenced by the birch bark letters of the famous Novgorod schoolchild of the 13th century. Onfima. One with a handwriting different from that of Onfim (No. 201), hence V.L. Yanin suggested that this letter belongs to Onfim's school friend. Onfim's fellow disciple was Danila, to whom Onfim prepared a greeting: "A bow from Onfim to Danila." Perhaps the fourth Novgorodian, Matvey (diploma No. 108), also studied with Onfim, whose handwritings are very similar. Russian scribes who worked in advanced schools used their own version of the structure of subjects, which to a certain extent took into account the experience of Byzantine and Bulgarian schools that provided higher education. Sophia's first chronicle of the school in Novgorod: 1030. "In the summer of 6538. Yaroslav Idea on Chyud, and I win, and set up the city of Yuryev. And when I come to Novgorod, and take 300 children from the elders and priests, teach them with a book." The school in Novgorod, founded in 1030 by Yaroslav the Wise, was the second higher educational institution in Russia, in which only the children of elders and clergy were trained. There is a version that the chronicles are talking about the children of church elders, elected from the lower classes, but until the end of the 16th century. only administrative and military elders are known. The term "church elder" appeared in the 17th century. The contingent of students of the Novgorod school consisted of children of the clergy and the city administration. The social composition of students reflected the class nature of education at that time. The main task of the school was to train a competent and united by a new faith administrative apparatus and priests, whose activities took place in a difficult struggle against the strong traditions of pagan religion among the Novgorodians and the Finno-Ugric tribes that surrounded Novgorod. The activities of Yaroslav's school relied on an extensive network of schools for elementary literacy, as evidenced by the large number of birch bark letters discovered by archaeologists, he wrote, wax plaques. On the basis of widespread literacy, Novgorod literacy flourished. The famous Ostromir Gospel, Dobrynya Yadreikovich's description of Constantinople, and Kirik's mathematical treatise were written in Novgorod. Preserved for posterity is "Izbornik 1073 Years", the initial collection of chronicles, a short version of "Russian Pravda". Novgorod book depositories served as one of the main sources of "The Great Menaion" - a collection of "all books that are in Russia", consisting of 12 huge volumes with a total volume of over 27 thousand pages. In the year 6545. Yaroslav laid the foundation for a large city, which now has the Golden Gate, laid the Church of St. Sophia, the Metropolitanate, and then the Church of the Holy Virgin of the Annunciation at the Golden Gate, then the monastery of St. George and St. Irene ... Yaroslav loved church statutes, priests were very fond of, especially the monks, and showed zeal for books, often reading them both night and day. And he collected many book-writers who translated from Greek into Slavic. And they wrote many books from which believers learn and enjoy the divine teaching. As it happens that one plows the land, another sows it, and still others reap and eat food that is not scarce, so it is here. After all, his father Vladimir plowed the land and softened, that is, he enlightened him with baptism, and we reap, receiving the book's teaching. After all, there is great benefit from book teaching; books instruct and teach us the ways of repentance, for we gain wisdom and abstinence in the words of books. These are rivers that feed the universe, these are sources of wisdom, in the books there is an immeasurable depth ... ... Yaroslav ... loved books and, having copied many of them, put them in the Church of St. Sophia, which he created himself " The educational reform of Vladimir and Yaroslav intensified Christianization in the lands of the future Russia and its neighbors, but the centuries-old pagan traditions had deep roots in the peoples of the country. As professional scribes of South Slavic manuscripts, they called themselves "grammarians", and teachers - teachers of the full course of grammar - were also called "Grammars". Emperor Justinian in 534 established a remuneration for prominent grammarians in the amount of 70 solidi and assigned a number of other privileges to these teachers. Grammar was taught in the Kiev palace school, after death, according to their status, they were buried in the cathedral. The relics of "Grammar" were transferred to the monastery, where Lazar was abbot (mentioned under 1088). Practical application of knowledge in crafts and construction In Kievan Rus, various knowledge and technical achievements used in practical life were accumulated and actively used: cities, fortresses and castles were erected, metal was mined, tools and weapons were forged, ships and machines were built, fabrics and clothing were produced, leather and footwear were made. All these branches of the craft required a wide variety of knowledge, skills and technical adaptations. From X to 20-30s. XII century the first stage in the development of ancient Russian craft with a fairly high technology of production in terms of the Middle Ages stands out. At this time, the foundations of ancient Russian production were created. In particular, there was ferrous metallurgy based on the raw-blown process of iron production from bog ores. Metallurgists living in rural areas supplied the cities with sufficient quantities of high-quality iron, which the city's blacksmiths converted into high-quality carbon steel. There was also developed leather and furry production, the manufacture of leather footwear. In Kievan Rus, several types of high-quality leather were known, an assortment of woolen fabrics was widely represented. In handicraft production, there were various technologies of woodworking, which made it possible to manufacture the most complex turned vessels of more than 20 types. The products of jewelers for the processing of non-ferrous metals were diverse and the technique of jewelry craft was at a high technological level. The second period, which began at the end of the first third of the 12th century, was characterized by a sharp expansion of the range of products and, at the same time, a significant rationalization of production, which led to the standardization of products and the specialization of handicraft industries. The number of specialties at the end of the XII century in some Russian cities it exceeded 100. For example, in metalworking, instead of high-quality multilayer steel blades, simplified blades with a welded edge appear. In the textile industry at the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. (at the same time as in Western Europe) the horizontal loom appears. Russian weavers, using extensive economic ties with the countries of Western Europe, did not lag far behind European craftsmen in the modernization of weaving production. Russian weavers specialized in the production of linen fabrics. In addition to looms in Russia, a variety of mechanical devices and machines were used, made mainly of wood: blower bellows, lifting levers, drills and collars, circular sharpeners and hand mills, spindles and reels, wheeled carts and a potter's wheel, crushing and pulp, turning machines, stone throwers, battering rams, crossbows and much more. Thus, through translated literature in Kievan Rus, scientific ideas of the surrounding world were spread, there were many literate and educated (in general) people, schools were operating. The technique of building temples and other structures, military fortifications was developing (here it was necessary to operate with precise calculations, to know the mechanics). Handicraft production in Russia, in terms of the variety of technological operations, in the development and equipping of tools, in terms of specialization, was on the same level with handicraft production in Western Europe and the East. However, scientific schools were not created, the development of knowledge was of an exclusively practical nature. From the second quarter of the XIII century. the development of the Russian lands was stopped by a powerful blow from the East, from the Mongol Empire, and the establishment of the vassal dependence of Russia on the Golden Horde. Batu's invasion caused terrible damage to Russian cities ─ centers of progress and knowledge. Among the tragic consequences was the fact that the development of Russian craft was interrupted, and yet it was in a state of recovery. For more than a century, some types of crafts (jewelry, glass), techniques and skills (filigree, grain, cloisonne enamel) were lost. Monuments of Russian architecture were destroyed. For half a century, stone city construction was stopped. Many written monuments perished. As N.M. wrote Karamzin: "the shade of barbarism, darkening the horizon of Russia, hid Europe from us at the very time ... the invention of the compass spread navigation and trade; artisans, artists, scientists were encouraged by the government; universities for higher sciences arose ... The nobility was already ashamed of robberies ... Europe is not us I learned: but for the fact that it has changed in these 250 years, and we stayed as we were. " The situation in the Russian lands began to change in the second half of the XIV century, in particular, the pre-Mongol level of production development was achieved. The prerequisites for this kind of production boom, undoubtedly, were the rise and strengthening of Moscow's positions in the unification process, the tactics of Ivan Kalita and his sons to "avoid conflicts" with the Horde. The symbol of the revival was the construction of the white-stone Kremlin in Moscow during the reign of Dmitry Donskoy. conclusions The historical role of Byzantium in the destinies of Europe, Kievan Rus, is enormous, the significance of its culture in the development of world civilization is enduring and, of course, fruitful. Byzantine art was extremely important. Making extensive use of the ancient heritage, Byzantine art acted as a repository of many of its images and motives and passed them on to other peoples. The significance of Byzantine art was especially great for countries that, like Byzantium, adhered to the Orthodox religion (Bulgaria, Ancient Russia) and invariably retained lively cultural ties with Constantinople (imperial and patriarchal courts). In the history of world culture, Byzantium is the first Christian empire, an Orthodox state, opening the era of the European Middle Ages. The most ancient durable medieval state, Byzantium for many centuries - the most powerful country in the Christian world, the center of a multifaceted, outstanding civilization. Sources of 1.Istrin V.A. The emergence and development of writing, 2010 .Rozov N.N. Books of Ancient Russia 9-14 centuries, 1977 .Florea B.N. The emergence of Slavic writing. Historical conditions of its development // Essays on the history of culture of the Slavs. RAS. Institute of Slavic and Balkan Studies. M., 1996 .Udaltsova Z. V. Byzantine culture. M., 1988. .# "justify">. Arsentieva A.V., Mikhailova S.Yu. History of Science: Textbook. Cheboksary, ed. Chuvash University. 2003. .Dyatchin N.I. The history of the development of technology. M .: Phoenix, 2001, 320 p. .Puzyrev N.M. A Brief History of Science and Technology. Textbook. allowance. Tver, Tver University 2003-2004. .# "justify">. # "justify">. http://www.portal-slovo.ru/impressionism/39140.php - educational portal Similar works on - The spread of the Greco-Byzantine spiritual traditions in Russia. Lives of the Saints and Introduction to Ancient Knowledge
belongs to the Indo-Europeans. family of languages, edges formed on the territory of the South-East. Europe (or, according to other t. Sp., M. Asia) as a result of ethnic processes apprx. VI-V-th millennium BC. It occupies a special place among Indo-Europeans. languages, since the written history of G. i. is more than 3.5 thousand years old (from the 15th-14th centuries BC) and is a unique phenomenon that makes it possible to trace the continuous development of its linguistic and cultural traditions. This circumstance contributed to the preservation of the stability of G. Ya., To-ry influenced the main Europ. languages, especially in Slavic, as well as in the languages of Christ. East. Greek is the foundational language of Christ. texts.
History of G. i.
conventionally divided into 3 main periods: proto-Greek. language, ancient Greek. the language of ancient Greece, the language of the medieval. Byzantium, sometimes called Middle Greek, and New Greek. language of modern Greece.
Within this periodization, the following more fractional division can be proposed: 1) Proto-Greek. language III - ser. II millennium BC; 2) ancient Greek. language: Mycenaean Greece (Mycenaean business Koine) - XV-XII centuries. BC, prepolis period (reconstruction) - XI-IX centuries. BC, antique polis Greece (polydialectic state) - VIII - late. IV century BC, "Alexandrian" Koine (fall of ancient dialects) - III-I centuries. BC; 3) G. i. Hellenistic-Rome. period (opposition of atticizing literary language and polyvariant colloquial speech) - I-IV centuries. according to R. Kh .; 4) medieval. G. i .; 5) the language of Byzantium V - ser. XV century; 6) the language of the era of the Ottoman yoke - con. XV - early. XVIII century; 7) New Greek. language since the 18th century
From a linguistic point of view, taking into account the specifics of the development and the relationship of 2 functional forms of language (lit. and colloquial), edges played an important role in the development of G. I., The periodization of its history is based on the allocation of 3 language complexes: ancient Greek. language (in oral speech up to the 4th-3rd centuries BC), containing territorial, as well as literary processed dialects; the Hellenistic Koine, which took shape under Alexander the Great and his successors and grew into New Greek as early as the 1st millennium AD; actually New Greek. language in dimotic form after the 10th century. according to R. Kh. As such, the Byzantine, or Middle Greek, language that differed in grammatical structure from the above language complexes did not exist.
Separation G. i. in ancient, middle and modern Greek. is primarily of historical and political, and not historical and linguistic significance (Beletskiy A.A. Problems of the Greek language of the Byzantine era // Antique culture and modern science. M., 1985. S. 189-193). From the standpoint of linguistic history proper, a special state of G. Ya., Which had no analogue in other languages, is its development into Byzantine. an era when, in addition to the preserved and newly created texts in ancient Greek. language in it closely intertwined and directly adjacent in one text features of ancient Greek. period (from Homeric forms and vocabulary to variants of G. i. of the first centuries according to R. Kh.) and new features, to-rye began to form even before R. Kh. and formed into a system already in New Greek. language.
The emergence of G. i.
Branch of the Greek. (Hellenic) proto-dialects from the rest of the Indo-Europeans. refers to approximately the III millennium BC At the turn of the III and II millennium BC Proto-Greek. tribes appeared on the Balkan Peninsula, apparently spreading in 2 directions. In the south, the Balkan Peninsula and nearby islands, where non-Indo-Europeans lived for a long time. and Indo-European. tribes, inhabited by the Achaeans, later tribes came from the north, united under the name "Dorian". A highly developed civilization on the island of Crete was at the basis of non-Indo-Europeans. "Letter B"), political organization, rudiments of crafts and art.
The Mycenaean or Cretan-Mycenaean culture is the most developed in the XIII-XI centuries. BC Achaean state-va. Cretan-Mycenaean texts on lined clay tablets ("linear" writing) give reason to consider this time as the beginning of the history of G. i.
Formation of Greek dialects
In the end. II millennium BC, there was a migration of tribes living in Europe and in the north of the Balkans. Some of the tribes inhabiting the north of the Balkans rushed south. Among them were the Dorians, who were at a lower level of cultural development than the Achaeans. As a result of the Dorian invasion and, possibly, some natural disasters, the Achaean culture almost completely perished. In the XII-IX centuries. BC in the east, Greek. the world developed the Ionian dialects of the Asia Minor coast, parts of the islands of the Aegean archipelago and Attica. The dialect of Attica soon emerged as an independent one. Central and partly east. the tribes were carriers of the Aeolian dialects (Lesbos Island, the adjacent coast of M. Asia, as well as Thessaly, Boeotia in the Balkans). A separate group was made up of the Dorian dialects of the Peloponnese and the dialects of the North-West close to them. parts of Hellas. All these dialects played an important role in the formation of the Greek language. literature.
Archaic and classical periods
In the VIII century. BC in the most developed central part of the Asia Minor coast, inhabited mainly by Ionians, the foundations of lit. language, the Greek was formed. non-folklore epic. Its main monuments are the epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey, the authorship of which has been attributed to Homer since antiquity. These works are borderline between folklore and the author's literature, therefore, the VIII century. BC is considered the time of the beginning of the Greek. lit-ry. The rapid economic and cultural development caused the need for writing, and it was borrowed from the Semites. peoples. In the VII-VI centuries. BC in connection with the development of the Greek. classical literature, the genre-dialect differentiation of the Greek was formed. literature.
The rise of Athens as a result of the Greco-Persians. wars (500-449 BC) entailed an increase in the prestige of the Attic dialect. This was also facilitated by the flourishing of verbal creativity in Athens, the emergence of schools of philosophy, the rise of oratory. In the V-IV centuries. BC language lit. works achieved a high degree of stylistic processing, for all the importance of the Attic dialect for the language of literature, the Ionian litas did not lose their meaning. forms, which gradually led to the creation of the Attic-Ionian common version of the language - Koine (from the Greek κοινὴ διάλεκτος - common language) in colloquial and lit. forms.
Hellenistic and Roman periods
From the end. IV century BC, in the Hellenistic era (see Ancient Greece), on the state of G. i. and its further development was largely influenced by the change in the relationship between written and oral speech. If polis life required the development of oral speech, then political and cultural contacts in the vast territory of the empire of Alexander the Great and his successors could not be carried out without expanding the scope of the written language, this process entailed a restructuring of education and a change in literature. genres. From this time on, oral speech and written lit. language developed in opposite directions. In oral speech, numerous local variants appeared, the forms of dialects were mixed and a certain average colloquial form was created, understandable throughout the entire space of Greek. the world. This variant is ancient Greek. language in Greek. science received the name "Alexandrian (s) koine", in Russian - "koine". In written lit. In the language of prose, there was a conscious conservation of the classical Attic norm of the 5th-4th centuries. BC and the Ionian-Attic version of lit. language con. IV-III c. BC, which influenced the further history of G. i.
In the II century. BC Greek. states came under the rule of Rome. Rome. culture developed under the strong Greek. influence, however, and the Greeks experienced the impact of lat. language, to-ry became the state. the language of Hellas (from that time part of the Roman Empire). 1st-4th centuries according to R. Kh. is defined as a Roman, or Hellenistic-Roman, period in the development of Greek. culture. The reaction to the romanization of the Greek. policies was the "revival" of the Greek. influence in the II century. according to R. Kh., reflected primarily on the fate of the language: the norm of lit. language again became the language of Attic prose of the 5th-4th centuries. BC This is an archaizing trend in the history of G. i. received the name "atticism". The Atticists hindered the penetration of the lit. the language of new vocabulary, non-classical grammatical forms, restored forms that had become obsolete - all this contributed a lot to the fact that oral speech and written literature. language further diverged in the forms of use. This situation is characteristic of the entire history of G. i. up to the present. states.
Byzantine period
The political history of Byzantium begins conditionally from 330 AD - the founding of the new capital of the Roman (Romeian) Empire - K-field (see Byzantine Empire). The specificity of the linguistic situation in Byzantium was the preservation in written speech, first exclusively, and then, to a lesser extent, the norms of lit. language of the Attic period, or Hellenistic lit. koine. Along with this form lit. language continued to develop the spoken language (the basis of the New Greek language), which with difficulty conquered the higher spheres of linguistic communication. The increasing difference between written and spoken language is characteristic of almost the entire thousand-year period of Byzantium's existence.
After the conquest of the Greek. lands in the XV century. the Ottoman authorities supported the Greek only minimally. culture necessary for cultural and political ties with Europe. At this time, for the Greek-speaking population of the Ottoman Empire, ancient culture and ancient Greek. the language became the embodiment of the national spirit, their study and propaganda continued to be the basis of education. A similar archaizing tendency prevailed after the liberation of the Greeks from the Tur. yoke in 1821 and continued for more than a century.
Dialectal division of the ancient Greek language and the language of literature
Dialects of the classical period
G. i. archaic and classical times (VIII-IV centuries BC) was polydialectal. In parallel with the development of pl. of territorial dialects, more generalized, albeit local, forms of the language were formed - dialectal Koine. They had at least 2 options: colloquial and everyday and to one degree or another stylistically processed, used in the business language (its features were reflected in the inscriptions) and in the language of lit. works where a certain tradition was gradually created: a certain lit. the genre must correspond to a certain variant of the dialect litas. koine.
By the classical period (5th-4th centuries BC), the Dorian Koine formed in the Peloponnese and Veliko in various regions of the multipolis and multi-layered Hellenic world. Greece, the Aeolian Koine in Cf. Greece, Ionian Koine in Asia Minor regions. The main role at this time was played by the Attic Koine. Dialectal Koine differed mainly in phonetic features. There were not many grammatical differences (in the form of endings).
Dorian Koine
Dialects of North-West Balkans, most of the Peloponnese and Vel. Greece by pl. phonetic and grammatical features are combined into one group, usually called Dorian. These dialects retained the archaic features of G. i., Therefore it was the Dorian forms of Greek. words are most often used when juxtaposing Indo-European. languages. About Dorian lit. koine can be judged by the language of the officers. inscriptions and works of poets, for example. Alkmana from Sparta (VII century BC). Examples of the use of the Dorian dialect in christ. lit-re are few (Sinesiy Kirensky, V century).
Aeolian koine
The group of Aeolian dialects, with a broad interpretation of this term, includes 3 sev. dialect (Thessalian, Boeotian and Asia Minor, or Lesbian) and 2 southern (Arcadian in the Peloponnese and Cypriot). But the latter usually stand out in the Arcado-Cypriot group. Lit. the form of the Aeolian dialects is known from the inscriptions and works of the lesbian poets Alcaeus and Sappho. In christ. literature, this dialect is not represented.
Ionian Koine
Dialects of this dialect were widespread on the coast of M. Asia and on the islands (Chios, Samos, Paros, Euboea, etc.), in the cities of the South. Italy and the Black Sea region. The Attic dialect, which was early isolated from it, also belongs to the Ionian dialects. Stylistically processed forms of the Ionian dialects are known from epic and lyric works (poems by Mimnerm), inscriptions and Herodotus' History. Echoes of the Ionian dialect are found mainly in the works of the Byzantines. historians as a result of their imitation of Herodotus.
Attic dialect and Atticism
The Attic dialect is an early distinct dialect of the Ionian group. Due to the leading position of Athens, the main city of Attica, in the political and cultural history of Hellas lit. a variant of the Attic dialect in the classical period (V-IV centuries BC) played the role of common Greek. language (koine) in the higher spheres of communication (religion, art, science, court, army). Already from the III century. BC in Alexandria, which became the center of Hellenistic culture, the works of Attic authors of the classical period began to be considered canonical, vocabulary and grammar of the 5th-4th centuries. BC were recommended as the norms of lit. language. This direction was called "atticism". Before the beginning. XX century it was proclaimed the basis of the Greek. linguistic culture, which contributed to the stability of lit. G. i.
In the history of the Attic dialect, 3 periods are conditionally distinguished: Old Attic (VI - early V century BC), classical (V-IV centuries BC), New Attic (from the end of IV century BC). X.). The new Atlantic dialect reflected the features of the general development of G. I .: an active process of alignment of declension and conjugation according to the principle of analogy, etc. distribution of Ionian vocabulary and word-formation models. These processes were associated with the formation of the commonly used version of the language - the Hellenistic (Alexandrian) Koine. It is in this dialect of G. i. to ser. III century. AD in Alexandria were translated from Hebrew. language of the book of the OT (see Art. Septuagint), which laid the foundation first for the Hellenistic-Jewish, and then for the early Christ. lit-ry.
Greek Koine of the Hellenistic period (3rd century BC - 4th century AD). Major language changes
Phonetics
In the system of vocalism, the differences in vowel length and brevity gradually disappeared, in the II-III centuries. according to R. Kh. this led to a change in the type of stress - musical to dynamic; the complex system of diphthongs began to be simplified since the 5th century. BC, when the diphthong ου was monophthongized; folding (involution) Greek. vocalism led to the fact that the vowels ι and η, and in some regions also υ coincided in pronunciation [i] (itacism, or iotacism). By the 1st century. BC completely disappeared from the letter iota in diphthongs with 1 long vowel. It was later introduced by the Atticists as an attributed iota, and then by the Byzantine. grammar - like iota subscription.
In the system of consonantism, the pronunciation of the double consonant ζ in [z] was simplified and the opposition s / z was gradually formed; aspirated φ, χ, θ passed into voiceless fricatives; voiced β, γ, δ - into voiced fricatives; the phonetic features of the Attic dialect were leveled, the Ionian forms were established: -γν-> -ν-, -ρρ-> -ρσ-, -ττ-> -σσ-; a new series of occlusives (nasal or non-nasal allophone) was formed; palatalized occlusives appeared (they were not specially indicated in the letter); an affricate existed in the later period. In the field of syntactic phonetics, the adjective ν at the end of a word has become widespread; Elysia and Krasis were rarely used.
In morphology, in the name system, the subspecies were aligned in declension to -α, the II Attic declension disappeared, the greatest changes affected the atematic declension. Its anomalies were either replaced by synonyms or changed according to the most common derivational types. There was a contamination of the III declension, on the one hand, and I and II, on the other. The vocal case gave way to the nominative one, and if it was used, then without interjection ὦ. The dual number disappeared, the dative case was gradually eliminated. As a result of the decomposition of the endings in favor of the basics, gradually Greek. declension according to the types of stems was transformed into declension according to grammatical gender (male, female and middle declension). The wrong degrees of comparison were equalized by the type of regular ones, the synthetic type of the superlative degree of adjectives was replaced by the superlative degree formed from the comparative with the addition of the article. Adjectives were divided into 2 types: into -ος, -α, -ον and -υς, - (ε) ια, -υ. The numeral "one" became the indefinite article. The reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person began to be used in the 1st and 2nd person.
In the verb system, the ways of expressing both verb categories and individual forms have changed. At the same time, analytical tendencies were growing for a clearer expression of the complex meaning of the verb form. The tendency towards the formation of forms by analogy has intensified; forms of the “I am the seer” type appeared to express the opposition of the long and non-lasting present in parallel with the long and non-lasting past. The endings I and II of the aorists, the imperfect and the aorist I, the forms of the verbs in -αω and -εω were mixed. Verbs ending in -οω have become verbs ending in -ωνω. The use of the descriptive imperative for the 1st and 3rd person began; the ending of the 2nd person of the imperative of the present was unified. time and aorist.
In the area of syntax, there has been a tendency to express different case meanings using prepositions; absolute (independent) infinitive and participial phrases gradually disappeared; reduced variability of cases with prepositions; the process of formation of analytical forms with a pretext was intensified, to-rye replaced the plural. case.
In koine word formation, there was a change of types. So, in the language of NT and papyri, there were many new words in -ισκος, -ισκη, a large number of words for wives appeared. kind on -η. Composition became especially intensive in Koine, which gave a lot of words in the New Testament and later languages, their copying increased the vocabulary of glories. languages. In lit. The Koine forms mostly retained the vocabulary of the classical period.
Koine Septuagint and NZ
From linguistic t. Sp. feature G. i. The OT consists in the fact that it is an adaptation to the language of a completely different system and at the same time is an illustration of the lability of the language of speech, which reflected grammatical and lexical Semitisms. The OT language is the most accurate expression of the essence of Greek. koine. Lability and multivariance are also characteristic features of G. I. NZ, to-ry can be defined as a complex phenomenon, representing the different timing of the creation of parts of the canon and the influence of the Greek. dialects and neighboring languages, primarily Aramaic and Hebrew. Although in the NT there is a spoken language with its own characteristics and tendencies of development, G. i. NZ cannot be considered a reflection of the vernacular. NZ texts are different in style: sermons, stories, parables, messages, etc., they use many. rhetorical devices inherent in precisely developed lit. language. NZ language in the history of G. i. perceived as an independent form of lit. language similar to the language of Homer.
Koine remained the language of Christ. lit-ry to mid. II century From that time on, Christ. writers generally switch to versions of the "learned" atticizing language, but such works as patericons, soulful stories, certain lives of saints, etc., continued to write in koine. On the basis of Koine VZ and NZ and more close to the classical forms of G. i. to the IV-V centuries. the language of Christ was formed. services, to-ry became the basis of G.'s stability i. both in the Middle Ages, and in the new period of history, and to-ry is used to the present. time unchanged. Unlike Catholic. West, where lat. the language of worship was inaccessible to the general population, for the Orthodox. Greek liturgical texts have always remained at least partially understandable.
Medieval G. i. (IV or VI-XV centuries).
In the structure of the language at this time, all those processes were going on, the beginning of which was laid in the Hellenistic era. Their periodization is difficult to imagine due to the insufficient number of sources consistent in time.
In phonetics, the processes of itakism continued (almost everywhere η, ι, οι are pronounced as [i]), vowel narrowing (cf. ); dissimilation of voiceless consonants (νύξ and νύχτα - night), simplification of consonant groups, instability of the final -ν. In morphology, declensions were unified and reduced: the creation of paradigms with 2 and 3 case endings, the gradual disappearance of the dative case. The verb system was dominated by the tendency to "collapse" the branched system of forms of the classical tense: the optative and the infinitive disappeared, the use of the conjunctiva decreased, the increment became irregular, the declension of participles was lost, there were no differences in the conjugation system of continuous verbs in the imperfect, the verb "to be" acquired clear media endings, etc.
In the IV-VII centuries. the educational system remained, as before, oriented towards ancient culture, including G. i. antique era. As in ancient Hellas, the teaching of grammar was based on the study of Homer's poems, since grammar was understood as the ability to read and interpret ancient authors. On the example of Homer's language, declensions and conjugations, spelling, metrics, and stylistics were studied. The main textbook was the grammar of Dionysius of Thrace (II century BC), later they began to read the books of the OT (especially the Psalter) and NT. The school curriculum also included the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, the works of Hesiod, Pindar, Aristophanes, historians and orators. Ancient Greek. the language continued to function not only in writing, but also in oral form, as evidenced by speeches and sermons, which were at that time and which were to be understood by believers. Thus, the linguistic situation of this period was determined by diglossia - the divergence of the spoken and literary. language. The latter was the language of the past centuries, mainly created by the Atticists and legalized in the writings of the Church Fathers. He gradually became bookish, that is, literary mainly in writing. However, the compilation of sermons on it testifies to the still existing organic connection between written and oral speech in lit. and colloquial options. G. i. of the ancient era (ancient Greek) functions in different historical and cultural conditions, but in the mouths of the speakers of this language and in the conditions of the continuity of the linguistic and cultural tradition.
Political and cultural changes in Byzantium in the middle. VII century (a sharp reduction in territory, the loss of many non-speaking areas, the decline of culture and education) directly affected the linguistic situation. The language of literature was still tradition. lit. G. I., From which more and more moved away both in vocabulary and in grammatical forms of colloquialism. Economic and cultural upsurge of the 9th-11th centuries entailed the planting of ancient Greek. language in its classical forms, and above all the Attic dialect. By the X century. it became clear that, although in principle the ancient Greek. language in previous centuries remained lit. language, elements of the vernacular spoken language actively invaded it, which can be called modern Greek. G.'s apologists tried to prevent this. antique era. As models for their works, such authors chose various forms of ancient Greek. language from works in the chronological range from Herodotus (V century BC) to Lucian (II century AD).
In the X century. Simeon Metaphrast undertook a linguistic "purification" of the hagiographic literature, subjecting the language of the originals to editing in the direction of bringing it closer to the ancient Greek, as if translating common words and expressions into ancient Greek. language. The method of "translation" (μετάφρασις, hence the nickname Metaphrast) of works written in the folk language into ancient Greek. the language was used later. However, there are known cases of the opposite paraphrase, to which, for example, the historical works of Anna Comnena and Nikita Choniates were subjected. Thus, at this stage, the book and spoken languages became, to a certain extent, different languages, they required translation, although the continuous linguistic and cultural traditions were supported in the carriers of G. i. a sense of the unity of ancient and modern Greek. language. The most complicated language situation since the XII century. characterized by a combination in lit. the language of Byzantium is incomplete bilingualism (ancient Greek and modern Greek) with diglossia (the existence of a colloquial and literal form) in the popular (modern Greek) language.
The linguistic situation in late Byzantium, after the capture of the K-field by the crusaders (1204), presented a complex picture. Diglossia still existed, but the ancient Greek opposition was also erased. and New Greek. (byzant.) options lit. language by mechanical mixing of ancient Greek. and New Greek. forms. This is medieval. New Greek language in lit. variant mainly had a "mosaic" structure. In the same lit. the work was in parallel used ancient Greek. and New Greek. forms of the same words were used in ancient Greek. and New Greek. synonym words. The era of the Palaeologus (2nd half. XIII-XV centuries) can be called the era of "2nd Atticism and 3rd sophistry". The discrepancy between lit. the written language and the speech of broad masses of the population of the diminished in size of the empire, in all likelihood, reached its apogee then (Beletsky. 1985, p. 191). In the XIII century. Processed forms of New Greek were gradually created. dialects, to-rye in late Byzantium began to differ. But the educated circles of society saw the "processing" of folk dialect speech in their maximum approximation to the "learned" (ancient Greek atticized) language. The combination of these 2 styles gave different and unexpected shapes to the litas. language.
The existence of literature in the folk language in late Byzantium testified that the folk language began to win more and more positions from the archaic book language, its functional paradigm expanded. However, G.'s normal development is I. the tour was interrupted. conquest.
Modern Greek
During the Renaissance, the language of ancient Greece was perceived as a distinctly limited independent language in time, little correlated with the language of Hellas, which was part of the Ottoman Empire. To understand G. i. New time, the significance of ancient Greek. language was so great that the latter received the name "modern Greek language", in which the concept of "ancient Greek language" is implicitly present.
Since the 18th century. there was an opposition of 2 variants of G. i. On the one hand, the language, cleared of Turkisms and oriented to the norms of ancient Greek. lit. language (kafarevusa), and with others - colloquial everyday folk language (dimotics). Depending on the ratio of these options, different types of litas were formed. G. i. In addition, option lit. koine was influenced by territorial dialects. South dialects of the Peloponnese were the basis of modern Greek. koine.
Main features of modern Greek literary Koine
Novogrech. phonetics is characterized by 4 main processes: further simplification of the vowel system; simplification of consonant groups; active dissimilation process; a reduction in the “amount of a word”, which is reflected in different ways in the language - in the sound of the word, in pronunciation and in writing.
In the field of morphology, the name system undergoes the following changes: the dative case disappears; the system of case endings has been simplified; declensions were rearranged according to 2 differential features: by gender and by the number of bases (1-basic and 2-basic); the opposition of 2 types was entrenched in the declension of names with 2 and 3 case forms. In the verb system, active participles have become a non-declining form, that is, a form close to Russian. gerunds. Some ancient Greek. the sacraments were preserved as substantivates. The third person of the imperative has been lost, the form of which has become peripheral. While maintaining the system of simple temporary forms (present, imperfect, aorist), a sequential system of descriptive forms appeared (future, perfect, pluperfect). In historical times, only the syllabic augment remained and only under stress, but in the forms with prefixes, the quantitative augment can be preserved.
Among the features of the New Greek. vocabulary and word formation can be noted the use of many ancient Greek. words in parallel with new words and with words that have a new grammatical form. At the same time, the original form was perceived not as archaism, but as a book form, that is, the form is not colloquially everyday; a large number of ancient Greek. words were kept in use as archaisms; there was a further development of the word composition.
From t. Sp. forms of existence of New Greek. language since the 18th century. development lit. G. i. can be divided into several. periods depending on the attitude of native speakers to ancient Greek. language. I. Archaization of lit. language ("archaism", or "neo-atticism"); formation of the opposition "kafarevus / dimotics" - XVIII - 1st half. XIX century. II. Attempts to create processed ("purified") forms of the folk language (dimotics) (καθαρισμός - purification) - ser. XIX century. III. Approximation lit. language to spoken folk; activity of J. Psycharis (so-called paleodynamicism) - late. XIX century. IV. Approximation lit. tongue to kafarevus; the creation of a "simple" cafe; the emergence of "mixed" cafeteria - early. XX century V. Creation of a standardized grammar of the national language before the Second World War (dimoticism); the formation of new Greek. lit. koine modern Greece. Vi. Dimotics (folk language) as the language of modern. Greece.
I. In the XVIII century. leaders of the Greek. cultures again turned to the problem of national literature. language and insisted on the revival of ancient Greek. lit. language. They believed that the spiritual revival of the Greek. people is possible only by returning to the origins of the spiritual culture of the Greeks. In the field of language, it was ancient Greek. an archaized language, which will be able to restore the continuity of the entire Hellenic national culture. An example of an archaizing tendency is the activity of Eugene (Bulgaris, Voulgaris) (1716-1806), the author of works on history, philosophy, music, theology, translator of ancient and modern. him Europ. philosophers. His extensive Op. "Logic" is written in ancient Greek. language, and the author insisted that philosophy can only be studied in it.
At that time, folk speech contained a lot of borrowed vocabulary (from the Turkish language, Romance, Slavic). In addition, a large number of irregular territorial variants were encountered in oral speech. Generally understandable ancient Greek for representatives of educated circles. language was even closer than modern. or colloquial G. i. Again, as was the case more than once in the history of G. I., The Attic dialect of the classical period was proclaimed as a model. Nominated pl. cultural figures (I. Misiodakas, D. Katarzis, etc.) the thesis about the need for the development of the national language did not find support: antiquity and ancient Greek. language for many remained a stronghold of national culture and a guarantee of national freedom.
Impact on the Greeks in Western Europe. culture went through the great Greek. colonies in Trieste, Budapest, Vienna, Leipzig and other cities. At this time in Zap. Europe was fond of the classical heritage of the Greeks and the subject of study was ancient Greek. language. These circumstances contributed a lot to the fact that by 1800, that is, shortly before the final stage of the liberation struggle of the Greeks, the kafarevusa had won a victory over the national language.
In Greece, a situation of incomplete bilingualism in combination with diglossia arose again: the functioning of the ancient G. i. as the highest stratum (lit. language, gl. arr. in writing) and folk New Greek. language as the lowest stratum (spoken spoken language). At this time, the ancient Greek. the language is already little understood by the masses, and translation into dimotics is required.
When an independent Greek was formed. state, in front of him immediately arose the question of state. language, since at that time there were 2 G. i .: written - kafarevusa and oral - dimotics. Church and state. the apparatus strongly objected to the vernacular, arguing this position by the existence of a multi-dialect vernacular language from Macedonia to Crete.
Since that time, a language policy has been carried out in Greece, aimed at the return of G. i. to national purity. State the device is serviced by a "strict" cafe. Ancient Greek. the language is considered by workers of culture, public education and the Church as the true basis of G. I., to a swarm should approach the New Greek. language, since the supporters of the Kafarevus believed that G. i. almost unchanged for 2 thousand years. K ser. XIX century. this is the movement for the ancient Greek. language connected with official. propaganda of the "great idea" of restoring Greece within the borders of the Byzantine Empire. The un-t created in Athens became the distributor of the "noble" kafarevusa, pl. writers and poets supported this idea. But works in the national language (Kleft songs) have also survived, especially those that were created on the Ionian Islands, which were not under the rule of the Turks.
II. But soon it became clear to many that it was impossible to reverse the development of the language and that such changes were not entirely justified, since in G. I. over the past centuries, there have been more than just losses. Resistance arose to persistent archaization of G. i. ("Linguistic strife", in the expression of the Greek linguists), increased demands to bring the written language closer to the spoken language. At the head of this moderate movement was the Greek. educator A. Korais, to-ry believed that it is necessary to "cleanse" the language of the tur. and europe. borrowings and their replacement in the Greek. words (ancient or newly created), but did not claim that the leading role should belong to the folk language. Nevertheless, the moderate position of Korais, his conviction that the truth lies in the unification of the 2 principles of G. I., paved the way for the approval of dimotics, edges more and more penetrated into lit. language. So, in 1856, the comedies of Aristophanes were translated into dimotics.
III. Social upsurge in the 70s and 80s. XIX century. in Greece contributed to the further expansion of the use of a living language in the literature. In the end. XIX century. prof. Sorbonne Psycharis theoretically substantiated the "linguistic status" of the popular G. i. and the need for its use as an official one. But his desire to unify pl. the peculiarities of the national language and the use of words basically only by the principle of analogy led to an extreme "dimoticism". The vernacular language could not be quickly unified due to the existence of many forms - from the Peloponnesian Koine to the insular dialects.
However, the activities of Psycharis, who advocated the introduction of dimotics from national, scientific and literary. positions, forced once again to revise the norms of the oral and written folk language, based on ancient Greek. lit. language. If until this time prose and dramatic works were entirely written, and poetry was mainly written in kafarevus, then in the beginning. XX century the former mainly, while the latter began to be entirely created on dimotics. Church, state and science adhered to the Kafarevus and Ancient Greek. language longer. In 1900, under the auspices of Cor. Olga made an attempt to translate the text of NZ from ancient Greek. language, since the masses did not understand it, but the purists did not allow this to be done. Some time later, A. Pallis published a translation of the NZ into the national language in the Athenian gas. "Akropolis" was the only one that allowed publication in the vernacular (see also in the Bible, section "Bible Translations"). But this attempt caused unrest among the people and clashes with the police, there were killed and wounded. In 1903 prof. G. Sotiriadis published a translation of Aeschylus's Oresteia into the vernacular, and riots broke out again. But, despite this, the positions of those who promoted dimotics were asserted. In 1903, the weekly "Numas" was founded, where articles by Psikharis, Pallis, K. Palamas were published. The latter considered colloquial New Greek to be the only one. language, which can become a written language for all people.
IV. The extremes of the position of Psycharis emphasized the correctness of the middle path proposed by Korais, which led to the creation of a "simple kafarevusa" without strong archaization, which was increasingly approaching the oral language. The apologist for this type of kafarevusa was G. Hadzidakis, who studied folk speech and considered kafarevusa the language of the future. On the officer. level, the opposition of kafarevusa to dimotics increased. In 1910, the cafe was approved as the only state. language. But 7 years later, in the elementary grades, schools were allowed to teach in dimotics, but without dialectisms and archaisms. These schools were called "mikta" (mixed, because in the senior grades, teaching was conducted in kafarevus). The school cafeteria, which is as close as possible to the spoken language, was named "Mikti".
V. Supporters of both varieties of G. i. understood the need for further active work on its form. The extreme dimoticism of Psycharis was smoothed out in the works of M. Triandafyllidis, who, in collaboration with others, wrote the grammar of dimotics, published in 1941. Triandafyllidis in plural. cases retained the spelling and grammatical forms of kafarevusa, although it mainly relied on dimotics. He believed that the spoken language necessarily needs to be standardized, streamlined, but his grammar was not an exact reflection of the spoken language, which retained many options. One of the main reasons for this position is the need to support I. etymological, not phonetic, principle of spelling: for thousands of years of development of Greek. pronunciation has changed so much that following the phonetic principle could be plural. cases to interrupt the linguistic tradition.
As a result of education in the history of the New Greek. language of 2 extreme directions (archaism - psyharism) and 2 moderate (kafarism - dimoticism) came to the need not to oppose, but to combine 2 principles: archaic, dating back to ancient Greek. language, and modern. In the 70s. XX century structure G. i. can be called "tetraglossia", which includes the following forms of G. i. Hypercapharevusa adhered to the norms of the Hellenistic Koine and even the Attic dialect as much as possible, with some differences in syntax, vocabulary and a little in grammar (no, for example, dual number and optative), was used in the Church and science. Kafarevusa itself deviated more from the classical syntax and also did not use, for example, ancient Greek. forms bud. time, was used in the political sections of the press, in scientific journals, in textbooks for secondary and high schools. A mixed language, close to the spoken version of G. i., Was used in neofits. articles in magazines, in fiction. This language, different from the language of archaizing literature and from the language of folk songs, was characterized as "dimotics without extremes", it can be called New Greek. lit. koine. Dimotics differed in many respects from kafarevusa in grammar, rather strongly in vocabulary, contained a large number of borrowings, and had territorial variants; was used in poetry and prose, in textbooks, in lit. magazines and newspapers.
Vi. World War II and then the Greek Civil War 1940-1949 stopped the development of theoretical problems of New Greek. language. Only in 1976 the folk language (dimotics) was officially declared the only form of New Greek. language, and in 1982 a certain reform of graphics was carried out: all diacritical marks were canceled, except for the acute accent mark in 2-compound and polysyllabic words. Kafarevusa has essentially fallen into disuse and is found only in the official. documents, in legal proceedings or certain headings of newspapers, in the written speech of the older generation.
During many. centuries the explicit or latent existence of ancient Greek. language in parallel or in a complex weave with living Greek. language of Byzantium and modern. Greece has created such a complex linguistic situation that many differ in its assessment. researchers. So, Greek. scientists believe that it has never been determined by bilingualism, but has always been only diglossia: 2 states of the same language that existed in parallel, and therefore their interaction and interpenetration is quite natural. Even if we accept the term "bilingualism" to characterize the linguistic situation in modern times. Greece, it must be borne in mind that the Greek. bilingualism had less clear boundaries than, for example, the opposition of Latin and Romance languages, especially in lit. language. Novogrech. the language is more closely related to ancient Greek. Bilingualism affected Ch. arr. grammar (morphology and especially syntax), and in vocabulary and word formation there have never been sharp boundaries between kafarevus and dimotics. Incomplete (relative) bilingualism, which characterized for many years. centuries, the linguistic situation in the Greek-speaking environment, once again emphasizes the power of archaizing tendencies in G. i. and the importance of studying its ancient Greek. states. Ancient Greek. the language was never recognized by the speakers of G. i. as another language, even in the presence of translations from Ancient Greek into Modern Greek, which is associated with the peculiarities of the political and cultural history of Greece.
M. N. Slavyatinskaya
BYZANTINE (4-15th century AD)
The Eastern Roman Empire and Byzantine culture as a whole played a gigantic, not yet adequately appreciated role in the preservation and transmission of the Greco-Roman philosophical and scientific heritage (including in the field of philosophy and theory of language) to representatives of the ideology and science of the New Age. It is precisely the Byzantine culture that Europe owes to the achievements in the creative synthesis of the pagan ancient tradition (mainly in the late Hellenistic form) and the Christian worldview. And it remains only to regret that in the history of linguistics insufficient attention is still paid to the contribution of Byzantine scholars to the formation of medieval linguistic teachings in Europe and the Middle East.
When characterizing the culture and science (in particular linguistics) of Byzantium, it is necessary to take into account the specifics of the state, political, economic, cultural, religious life in this powerful Mediterranean power, which existed for more than a thousand years during the period of continuous redrawing of the political map of Europe, the appearance and disappearance of many "barbaric" states ...
Culturally, the Byzantines were superior to the Europeans. In many ways, for a long time they retained a late antique way of life. They were characterized by an active interest of a wide range of people in the problems of philosophy, logic, literature and language. Byzantium had a powerful cultural impact on the peoples of the adjacent countries. And at the same time, until the 11th century. the Byzantines protected their culture from foreign influences and only later borrowed the achievements of Arab medicine, mathematics, etc.
In 1453 the Byzantine Empire finally fell under the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks. A mass exodus of Greek scientists, writers, artists, philosophers, religious leaders, theologians began to other countries, including the Moscow state. Many of them continued their activities as professors of Western European universities, mentors of humanists, translators, spiritual leaders, etc. Byzantium had a responsible historical mission to save the treasures of the great ancient civilization during the period of abrupt breakdowns, and this mission successfully ended with their transfer to the Italian humanists in the Pre-Renaissance period.
The ethnic composition of the empire's population was very variegated from the very beginning and changed over the course of the history of the state. Many of the inhabitants of the empire were originally Hellenized or Romanized. The Byzantines had to maintain constant contacts with speakers of a wide variety of languages - Germanic, Slavic, Iranian, Armenian, Syrian, and then Arabic, Turkic, etc. Many of them were familiar with written Hebrew as the language of the Bible, which did not prevent them from often expressing an extremely puristic attitude, contrary to church dogmas, towards borrowing from it. In the 11th and 12th centuries. - after the invasion and resettlement of numerous Slavic tribes on the territory of Byzantium and before the formation of independent states by them, Byzantium was essentially a Greco-Slavic state.
Much attention was paid to rhetoric going back to the ideas of the ancient authors Hermogenes, Menander of Laodicea, Aftonius and further developed by the Byzantines Psellus and especially well-known in the West by George of Trebizond. Rhetoric was at the heart of higher education. Its content consisted of teachings about paths and figures of speech. Rhetoric retained the orientation toward the speaker, characteristic of antiquity, while philology was oriented toward the person who perceives artistic speech. The Byzantine experience of studying the cultural side of speech in the development of poetics, stylistics and hermeneutics has retained its significance in the Middle Ages and in our time.
The Byzantines achieved significant success in the practice and theory of translation. They carried out translations of Western theologians and philosophers, intensifying this activity after the conquest of Constantinople by the crusaders. There appeared "Greek Donates" (Greek interlinear translations to the Latin text), which initially helped the study of the Latin language, and then served as aids for Italian humanists to study the Greek language). Outstanding translators were the Byzantines Dimitri Kydonis, Gennadius Scholarius, Planud, the Venetians Jacob from Venice, the natives of southern Italy Henrik Aristippus and Leontius Pilate from Catania.
One of the oldest languages in the world. Even today Greek is spoken by 10 million inhabitants of Greece, the majority of the population of Cyprus and, of course, the Greek diaspora, scattered all over the world. Of course, we can say that this is not so much. But it would be extremely odd to judge the Greek language on the basis of how many people speak it today.
In this language, the most interesting of all is its amazing history: after all, the Greek language stands at the origins of everything that has shaped Western thought - philosophy, literature, the Christian Church ... And therefore, in almost any European language you can find a huge number of words with Greek roots: space, telephone, grammar, lamp, astronomy and many others. So it's safe to say that we all speak a little Greek!
A bit of history
Of course, modern Greek differs in many ways from the language spoken by the greatest thinkers of antiquity, such as Plato or Aristotle. Over the centuries of its existence, the language has changed a lot, so the phrase "Greek" often requires clarification. For different stages of its development, the following names are used:
- Ancient greek- the language of ancient Greece, including as part of the Roman Empire (up to the 5th century AD).
- Byzantine language (or Middle Greek)- the language of the Greek and Hellenized population of the Byzantine Empire (VI-XV centuries). However, many neo-Hellenistic scholars oppose this term and propose to talk about the coexistence of early modern Greek and ancient Greek: this is due to the fact that the Greek language of that period was extremely heterogeneous.
- Modern Greek has existed since about the 15th century as the language of the Greek and Hellenized populations of late Byzantium and the Ottoman Empire. Today it is the official language of Greece and Cyprus.
XIX and XX centuries in Greece are marked by the presence of a special language situation - diglossia(so called the simultaneous existence of two language options). However, in 1976, the official language became dimotics(δημοτική), and from cafes(καθαρεύουσα) - a linguistic variant oriented towards the Greek literary tradition and following the ancient Greek norms of writing, but with a modern pronunciation, only a few elements have survived.
About Greek dialects
Most of the Greek regions have their own local dialects. So, for example, there are Cypriot, Cretan, Tsakonsky, South Italian and northern Greek. Dialects are exclusively oral and are not used in writing (with the exception of literary works where characters can speak a particular dialect). In each of the districts, there are also pronunciation features that are noticeable to a foreigner to varying degrees.
Most of the differences are between the Cypriot dialect of the Greek language and what is called Classical Greek. It must be said that the Cypriot dialect as a whole is characterized by the presence of the sounds "sh" and "h", which are not in modern Greek, as well as long vowels and duplication of consonants or their "swallowing", which is also not typical for the modern Greek language. These phonetic differences are also recorded in writing:
Μούττη - μύτη - nose
(mutti - miti)
Όι - όχι - no
Μυάλος - μεγάλος - large
(myYalos - magAlos)
As you can see, the difference is quite significant, not to mention the fact that there are words that are completely different from their Greek "brothers":
Καρκόλα - κρεβάτι - bed
(karkOla - krevAti)
Ιντυχάνω - μιλώ - to talk
(indihano - milO)
Φκάλλω - βγάζω - take out, pull out
(fkAllo - vgazo)
But there is no need to be afraid of these differences: no matter where in Greece or Cyprus you are, if you speak the classical modern Greek language (which is spoken in the continental part of Greece - Athens and Thessaloniki), you will be understood everywhere without any problems!
How and where to start learning Greek
Start with the alphabet and clearly work out the pronunciation of sounds, since in Greek, along with the correct stress, it is pronunciation that plays a decisive role: in Greek there are many seemingly similar sounds, the substitution of which can lead to funny and sometimes sad consequences. This is especially true for those sounds that are not in the Russian language.
The next step - and in this case it does not matter whether you study Greek on your own or under the guidance of a teacher - is to master the grammatical basis of the Greek language. Many note the similarity of the grammar of the Greek language with the grammar of the Russian language. This is partly true: both in Greek and in Russian, nouns change in gender (there are three of them, as in Russian - masculine, feminine and neuter), numbers, cases (here it is even easier for Russian speakers, since in Greek four - nominative, accusative, genitive and vocative), and verbs have categories of conjugation, mood ...
Since the modern Greek language is a simplified version of the ancient Greek, there are not so many rules compared to the Russian language, but there are quite a few exceptions. But this is what makes it even more related to the Russian language, and until you start learning Greek, you cannot even guess how much in common between these languages!
That is why starting to learn Greek, like English, by memorizing a certain number of words, will not work: without getting acquainted with the grammatical structure of the Greek language, you will not be able to form even the simplest sentences. So please be patient and take the time to Greek grammar.
And learning words can turn into a game. Take, for example, the word άνθρωπος (Anfropos) - a person. And what kind of science is engaged in the study of man? Anthropology! Or τραπέζι (trapezi) - a table. What are we doing at the table? We have fun, that is, we eat. And you can endlessly give similar examples.
Learning Greek can seem daunting at first. However, everything is in your hands, and success depends on the regularity and intensity of classes - preferably, of course, under the guidance of an experienced teacher - and subsequent language practice.
GRECO-BYZANTINE
Greco-Byzantine
Lopatin. Dictionary of the Russian language Lopatin. 2012
See also the interpretation, synonyms, meanings of the word and what is GRECO-BYZANTINE in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:
- GRECO-BYZANTINE in the Complete Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language.
- GRECO-BYZANTINE in the Spelling Dictionary.
- GRECO in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(Greco) Emilio (b. 1913) Italian sculptor. Rhythmically pointed, exquisitely stylized pieces of decorative plastics ("Leah", ... - GRECO CHESS PLAYER
(Gioachino Greco) - the famous Italian chess player (1600-1634), wrote in 1626 a theoretical essay on the game of chess. New ed. 1859 and ... - GRECO ARTIST in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
(el-, El Greco) - see Teotokopouli ... - GRECO in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
look El ... - GRECO in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
look El ... - GRECO in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
-... The first part of complex words with meaning. Greek, ex. Greek-Latin, ... - BYZANTINE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
, th, th. Belonging to Byzantium - a state of the 4th-15th centuries, formed after the collapse of the Roman Empire. Byzantine art. Byzantine ... - GRECO in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
GREKO, see El Greco ... - GRECO
(Gioachino Greco)? the famous Italian chess player (1600-1634), wrote in 1626 a theoretical essay on the game of chess. New ed. 1859 and ... - BYZANTINE in the Complete Accentuated Paradigm by Zaliznyak:
byzantine yski, byzantine yski, byzantine yskoe, byzantine yski, byzantine yski, byzantine yskoy, byzantine yski, byzantine yski, byzantine yski, byzantine yskoy, byzantine yski, byzantine yski, byzantine Yskiy, Byzantine "Yskoy, Byzantine" Yskoye, Byzantine "Yski, Byzantine" Yskoy, Byzantine "Yskoy, Byzantine" Yskoy, Byzantine "Yski, ... - BYZANTINE in the dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian language.
- BYZANTINE in the New Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
adj. 1) Related to Byzantium, associated with it. 2) Peculiar to Byzantium, characteristic of it. 3) Belonging to Byzantium. 4) Created, manufactured ... - BYZANTINE in the Dictionary of the Russian language Lopatin:
Byzantine (from ... - BYZANTINE in the Complete Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language:
Byzantine (from ... - BYZANTINE in the Spelling Dictionary:
Byzantine (from ... - GRECO
The first part of compound words with meaning. Greek Greek-Latin, ... - BYZANTINE in the Ozhegov Russian Language Dictionary:
relating to Byzantium - a state of the 4-15 centuries, formed after the collapse of the Roman ... - GRECO in the Modern Explanatory Dictionary, TSB:
see El Greco. - (Greco) Emilio (b. 1913), Italian sculptor. Rhythmically pointed, exquisitely stylized pieces of decorative plastics ("Leah", ... - BYZANTINE in the Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova:
byzantine adj. 1) Related to Byzantium, associated with it. 2) Peculiar to Byzantium, characteristic of it. 3) Belonging to Byzantium. 4) Created, ... - BYZANTINE in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
- BYZANTINE in the Big Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
adj. 1. Pertaining to Byzantium, associated with it. 2. Peculiar to Byzantium, characteristic of it. 3. Belonging to Byzantium. 4. Created, manufactured ... - THEODOR OF THE BYZANTINE
Open Orthodox encyclopedia "DREVO". Theodore of Byzantium (+ 1795), martyr. Commemorated February 17 (Greek) Originally from Constantinople. Suffered … - STEPHANE BYZANTINE in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox encyclopedia "DREVO". St. Stephen (VIII century), martyr. Commemoration of November 28. Holy Martyrs Stephen, Basil ... - PAUL BYZANTINE in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox encyclopedia "DREVO". Paul of Byzantium (+ c. 270 - 275), martyr. Commemorated on June 3. Suffered for ... - LEONTIUS BYZANTINE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
(Jerusalem) (at the place of birth - Byzantine, at the place of residence - Jerusalem) - church historian and theologian-heresyologist (+ about 590). First … - PAGING GRECO-ROMAN in the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedia:
¬ 1) Animism in the narrow sense of the word (the cult of souls). The most ancient stage of the Greco-Roman religion, we must recognize the one that is for ... - BYZANTIUM* in the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedia:
Contents: Byzantium? the colony. ? Byzantine Empire. ? Byzantine literature. ? Byzantine law. ? Byzantine art. ? Byzantine coin. Byzantium ... - EL GRECO in Collier's Dictionary:
(El Greco) (c. 1541-1614), Spanish artist of Greek origin, was born on the island of Crete, which was at that time under the rule of Venice; his … - SPAS (HONEY, APPLE, NUT) in the Dictionary of Rites and Sacraments:
SPASA (14/1, 19/6, 29/16 August) As promised, without deceiving, The sun penetrated early in the morning With a slanting strip of saffron From the curtain to the sofa. ... - FERRARO-FLORENTINE CATHEDRAL in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox encyclopedia "DREVO". Ferraro-Florentine Cathedral 1438 - 1445, - Cathedral of the Western Church, convened by Pope Eugene IV in ... - UNION in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox encyclopedia "DREVO". Attention, this article is not finished yet and contains only part of the necessary information. Union (church; lat.unio ... - STEFAN DECHANSKY in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox encyclopedia "DREVO". Stefan Urosh III, Decansky (1285 - 1331), King of Serbia, great martyr. Memory … - THE MEETING OF THE LORD in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox encyclopedia "DREVO". The Presentation of the Lord, a holiday of the Orthodox Church, belongs to the twelve. Celebrated on February 2. V … - SPASSKY ANATOLY ALEKSEEVICH in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox encyclopedia "DREVO". Spassky Anatoly Alekseevich (1866 - 1916), professor of the Moscow Theological Academy in the Department of Ancient History ... - SEPARATION OF CHURCHES in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox encyclopedia "DREVO". Attention, this article is not finished yet and contains only part of the necessary information. Christian Church, according to ... - ALEXEY PETROVICH LEBEDEV in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox encyclopedia "DREVO". Attention, this article is not finished yet and contains only part of the necessary information. Lebedev Alexey Petrovich (... - IRINA-PIROSHKA in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox encyclopedia "DREVO". Irina-Piroshka (Piroska), in schema Xenia (1088 - 1134), empress, saint. Memory … - JOSEPH (SEMASHKO) in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox encyclopedia "DREVO". Joseph (Semashko) (1798 - 1868), Metropolitan of Lithuania and Vilna. In the world Iosif Iosifovich ... - BREST UNIA in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree.
- NOVEL in the Handbook of Characters and Cult Objects of Greek Mythology:
I LACAPINUS Byzantine emperor in 920-945. June 115, 948 Roman came from the city of Lakapa in the Likand fem. ... - RUSSIA, SECTION CHURCH MUSIC (PREHISTORIC AND ANCIENT PERIOD) in the Brief Biographical Encyclopedia.
- RUSSIA, SECTION CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY
Rz of both ancient languages in Russia learned earlier Greek, and from the works written in this language, they first read and translated ... - RUSSIA, SECTION STORY in the Brief Biographical Encyclopedia:
The main subject of historical science in Russia is the past of the native country, on which the largest number of Russian historians and ... - BOLOTOV VASILY VASILIEVICH in the Brief Biographical Encyclopedia:
Bolotov, Vasily Vasilievich, - a famous church historian (born December 31, 1853, died April 5, 1900). The son of a sexton of Tver ... - ANTONY ZUBKO in the Brief Biographical Encyclopedia:
Anthony, Zubko, Minsk Orthodox Archbishop (1797 - 1884), Belarusian by birth, the son of a Greco-Uniate priest. He studied at the Polotsk Greco-Uniate seminary, in ... - RUSSIAN SOVIET FEDERATIVE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC, RSFSR in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB.
- MICHAEL PSELL in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
Psellus (Michael Psellos), before tonsure - Constantine (1018, Constantinople, - about 1078 or about 1096), Byzantine politician, writer, scientist. ...
